24 Studies in Animal Behavior 



action becomes gradually transferred from the out- 

 side of the organism to the inside. New wants en- 

 gender new habits and give rise to new organs. In- 

 stinct is regarded as internal impulsion instead of 

 response to outer stimuli. It stands sharply marked 

 off from the activities, however complex, of the 

 lower organisms whose behavior is entirely deter- 

 mined by their environment. 



With the advent of the vertebrates with their well- 

 developed brain we have the appearance of intelli- 

 gence and free will. Lamarck sedulously avoids the 

 anthropomorphism of many previous writers in 

 maintaining that intelligence and will can arise only 

 in higher animals which have the requisite nervous 

 organization. With the perfecting of this organiza- 

 tion the higher mental faculties become further de- 

 veloped, and reach their culmination in the mind 

 of man which is regarded as the outcome of a con- 

 tinuous process of evolution. 



Although much had been written on the instincts 

 and habits of animals in the half-century following 

 Lamarck, there was but little contributed to the doc- 

 trine of mental evolution until we come to Herbert 

 Spencer, who undoubtedly ranks as one of the great- 

 est of all genetic psychologists. Spencer's Principles 

 of Psychology was published in 1855, but several 

 years later after the Darwinian theory had been pro- 

 mulgated it was reissued in a revised and consider- 

 ably enlarged form. His treatment of life and mind 

 from the common standpoint of the adjustment of 



