272 Animal Intelligence 



of exercise operated, learning would not be adaptive. It is 

 the effect of 2 that gives it the advantage over i and 3. Of 

 two responses to the same annoying situation, one continu- 

 ing and the other relieving it, an animal could never learn 

 to adopt the latter as a result of the law of exercise alone, 

 if the former was, originally, twice as likely to occur. 112 

 would occur as often as 2 and exercise would be equal for 

 both. The convincing cases are, of course, those where 

 learning equals the strengthening to supremacy of an 

 originally very weak connection and the weakening of 

 originally strong bonds. An animal's original nature may 

 lead it to behave as shown below: 

 1113114112 

 1111311131142 

 411331144111112, etc., 



and yet the animal's eventual behavior may be to react to 

 the situation always by 2. The law of effect is primary, 

 irreducible to the law of exercise. 



THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIOR 



The acceptance of the laws of exercise and effect as ade- 

 quate accounts of learning would make notable differences 

 in the treatment of all problems that concern learning. I 

 shall take, to illustrate this, the problem of the development 

 of intellect and character in the animal series, the phylogene- 

 sis of intellectual and moral behavior. 



The difficulties in the way of understanding the evolution 

 of intellectual and moral behavior have been that neither 

 what had been evolved nor that from which it had been 

 evolved was understood. 



The behavior of the higher animals, especially man, was 

 thought to be a product of impulses and ideas which got 



