The Study of Consciousness and Behavior 3 



exclusively with consciousness 'as such'; Stanley Hall, 

 with behavior ; and James, with both. In England Stout, 

 Galton and Lloyd Morgan have represented the same divi- 

 sion and union of interests. 



On the whole, the psychological work of the last quarter 

 of the nineteenth century emphasized the study of conscious- 

 ness to the neglect of the total life of intellect and character. 

 There was a tendency to an unwise, if not bigoted, attempt 

 to make the science of human nature synonymous with the 

 science of facts revealed by introspection. It was, for 

 example, pretended that the only value of all the measure- 

 ments of reaction-times was as a means to insight into the 

 reaction-consciousness, - - that the measurements of the 

 amount of objective difference in the length, brightness or 

 weight of two objects that men could judge with an assigned 

 degree of correctness were of value only so far as they 

 allowed one to infer something about the difference between 

 two corresponding consciousnesses. It was affirmed that 

 experimental methods were not to aid the experimenter to 

 know what the subject did, but to aid the subject to know 

 what he experienced. 



The restriction of studies of human intellect and character 

 to studies of conscious states was not without influence on 

 scientific studies of animal psychology. For one thing, it 

 probably delayed them. So long as introspection was 

 lauded as the chief method of psychology, a psychologist 

 would tend to expect too little from mere studies, from the 

 outside, of creatures who could not report their inner expe- 

 riences to him in the manner to which he was accustomed. 

 In the literature of the time will be found many comments 

 on the extreme difficulty of studying the psychology of 

 animals and children. But difficulty exists only in the 

 case of their consciousness. Their behavior, by its simpler 



