﻿ANIMAL 
  BEHAVIOUR 
  219 
  

  

  brainless 
  animals 
  without 
  using 
  words 
  like 
  selecting, 
  trying, 
  

   learning, 
  and 
  profiting 
  by 
  experience. 
  We 
  cannot 
  demon- 
  

   strate 
  the 
  existence 
  of 
  consciousness 
  in 
  the 
  lower 
  animals, 
  but, 
  

   as 
  Professor 
  Jennings 
  observes, 
  " 
  objective 
  investigation 
  is 
  

   as 
  favourable 
  to 
  the 
  view 
  of 
  the 
  general 
  distribution 
  of 
  con- 
  

   sciousness 
  throughout 
  animals 
  as 
  it 
  could 
  well 
  be' 
  (1906, 
  

   p. 
  337). 
  " 
  So 
  far 
  as 
  objective 
  evidence 
  goes 
  there 
  is 
  no 
  

   difference 
  in 
  kind, 
  but 
  a 
  complete 
  continuity 
  between 
  the 
  

   behaviour 
  of 
  lower 
  and 
  of 
  higher 
  organisms 
  7 
  (1906, 
  p. 
  335). 
  

   We 
  start 
  at 
  one 
  end 
  with 
  our 
  own 
  doings, 
  in 
  some 
  of 
  

   which 
  intelligence 
  counts, 
  we 
  pass 
  gradually, 
  though 
  never 
  

   perhaps 
  by 
  rigid 
  demonstration, 
  through 
  the 
  behaviour 
  of 
  

   our 
  fellows, 
  our 
  horses 
  and 
  dogs, 
  birds 
  and 
  fishes, 
  spiders 
  

   and 
  hermit-crabs, 
  ganglionless 
  starfishes 
  and 
  sea-anemones, 
  

   to 
  the 
  extraordinarily 
  puzzling 
  condensed 
  individualities 
  of 
  

   Infusorians 
  and 
  Amoebae, 
  ISTor 
  will 
  it 
  be 
  easy 
  to 
  shut 
  out 
  

   carnivorous 
  plants 
  and 
  others 
  that 
  stir 
  themselves 
  in 
  what 
  

   seems 
  to 
  us 
  a 
  sleep-life, 
  whose 
  dreams 
  are 
  flowers. 
  At 
  all 
  

   levels 
  of 
  organisation 
  we 
  find 
  behaviour 
  which, 
  objectively 
  

   considered, 
  is 
  like 
  our 
  intelligent 
  behaviour. 
  We 
  know 
  that 
  

   in 
  many 
  cases 
  the 
  creatures 
  are 
  not 
  so 
  clever 
  as 
  they 
  look, 
  

   and 
  we 
  do 
  not 
  know 
  of 
  any 
  way 
  of 
  proving 
  that 
  mentality 
  

   pervades 
  it 
  all. 
  But 
  it 
  is 
  impossible 
  to 
  think 
  of 
  intelligently 
  

   controlled 
  behaviour 
  evolving 
  from 
  behaviour 
  in 
  which 
  men- 
  

   tality 
  was 
  wholly 
  absent, 
  and 
  it 
  seems 
  clearest 
  to 
  think 
  of 
  

   all 
  organisms 
  as 
  psycho-physical 
  individualities. 
  

  

  (3) 
  Third 
  we 
  get 
  a 
  vivid 
  impression 
  that 
  the 
  realm 
  of 
  

   organisms 
  stands 
  out 
  in 
  strong 
  relief 
  against 
  the 
  inorganic 
  

   background. 
  The 
  not-living 
  world 
  is 
  a 
  domain 
  of 
  mechanical 
  

   necessitation, 
  without 
  initiatives; 
  a 
  domain 
  of 
  uniformities, 
  

   without 
  alternatives; 
  a 
  domain 
  of 
  absolute 
  determination, 
  

   without 
  spontaneity; 
  a 
  domain 
  where 
  there 
  is 
  no 
  individu- 
  

  

  