THINGS ESSENTIAL TO BOTANICAL TEACHING 63 



remarks, the logic of each step. Each student should 

 then for himself observe and record results, and de- 

 duce conclusions as if the experiment were entirely 

 his own. It is particularly necessary that the stu- 

 dents understand the exact logic of each step, and 

 that their records should bring it out clearly. Their 

 records, too, should express and keep perfectly dis- 

 tinct (c?) the object of the experiment, (I?) the method 

 and apparatus employed, (c) the results actually ob- 

 served, (d) conclusions. Results of all experiments 

 should be expressed precisely and quantitatively when- 

 ever possible, not only because of the greater scien- 

 tific value of results of this kind, but also for the 

 sake of the pedagogic value of exact measurement, 

 which is very great. 



The close acquaintance the teacher forms with the 

 student in the laboratory makes examinations as tests 

 of knowledge unnecessary, while regular essays may 

 be made to give to some extent that other chief 

 value of examinations, namely, review. Still, exami- 

 nations for insuring thorough knowledge of the the- 

 oretical work are desirable, and quizzes, etc., have 

 their value, varying with the personality of the 

 teacher. Since laboratory work gives a knowledge 

 of but a few types, and since some of the most im- 

 portant topics cannot for practical reasons be studied 

 in the laboratory at all, considerable theoretical, as 

 distinct from practical, work is necessary. This is 



