HISTORY OF ZOOLOGY. 13 



to Aristotle's four groups of animals with blood. In the 

 division of the invertebrated animals into Insecta and 

 Vermes Linnaeus stands undoubtedly behind Aristotle, 

 who attempted, and in part indeed successfully, to set up 

 a larger number of groups. 



But in his successors even more than in Linnaeus him- 

 self we see the damage wrought by the systematic method 

 of consideration. The diagnoses of Linnaeus were for the 

 most part models, which, mutatis mutandis, could be 

 employed for new species with little trouble. There was 

 needed only some exchanging of adjectives to express the 

 differences. With the hundreds of thousands of different 

 species of animals there was no lack of material, and so 

 the arena was opened for that spiritless zoology of species 

 which in the first half of this century brought Zoology 

 into such discredit. Zoology would have been in danger 

 of growing into a Tower of Babel of species-description if 

 a counterpoise had not been created in the strengthening 

 of the physiologico-anatomical method of consideration. 



DEVELOPMENT OE MORPHOLOGY. 



Anatomists of Classic Antiquity. Comparative Anat- 

 omy for this chiefly concerns us here for a long time 

 owed its development to the students of human anatomy; 

 this is due to the fact that even up to a recent date Com- 

 parative Anatomy was assigned to the medical faculty, 

 while Zoology belonged to the philosophical faculty, as if it 

 were an entirely separate study. The disciples of Hippoc- 

 rates had previously studied animal anatomy for the pur- 

 pose of obtaining from the structure of other mammals 

 an idea of human organization, thereby to gain a secure 

 foundation for the diagnosis of human diseases. The work 

 of classical antiquity most prominent in this respect, the 

 celebrated Human Anatomy by Claudius Galenus (13 1-201 

 A. D.), is based chiefly upon collected observations upon 

 dogs, monkeys, etc. For in ancient times and even later, 

 in the Middle Ages, men showed considerable repugnance 



