COMPOSITION OF THE SKULL. 



377 



extreme modification in form. At first nil limbs arise as 



little pads, in which the skeletons subsequently develop, and 



in early life the limbs of all Vertebrates above the fishes are 



much alike, the mod- 



ifications taking place 



shortly before birth. Ac- 



cording to Gegenbaur 



and others, the limbs of 



Vertebrates have been 



probably derived from 



the pectoral and ventral 



fins of fishes in which 



the fin-rays are irrela- 



tively repeated.* 



In the fins of fishes 

 there is a simple system 

 of leverage ; in the limbs 



of higher air-breathing Fig> 377> _^ skull . ^ verte b rffi 



c , sacrum, 



> > _ , , 



a fnrmpd Itv and e. its continuation (nrostyle) ;/, suprascap- 

 b U J ula; g, hiimcrus; h, fore-arm bones; i, wrist 



walking O11 land, a Com- bones (carpals and metacarpus) ; d, ilium ; m 



thigh (femur); n, leg bone (tibia) ; o, elongated 



pOUlld System Of lever- first pair of ankle-bones itarsfil*) ; p,q, foot 

 J boues or phalanges. After Owen. 



age (Wyman). 



The head of all Vertebrates above the lancelet is supported 

 by a more or less perfect cartilaginous or bone framework, 

 the skull (cranium), or brain-box (Fig. 381). It is a contin- 

 uation of the vertebral column, and protects the brain, 

 besides forming the support of the jaws, tongue-bone 

 (hyoid bone), and branchial arches. The series of lateral 

 (visceral or branchial) arches varies, but there may be nine ; 

 the most anterior (if it be counted as the first one, Fig. 

 382, a, b, c) is formed by what are called the labial carti- 

 lages; next comes the rnandibular arch (o, n}, which is suc- 

 ceeded by the hyoid arch (II.) and the six branchial arches. 

 In the embryos of all Vertebrates these visceral arches are 



* A modified form of this theory is advocated by Balfour and J. K. 

 Thatcher, who attempt to show that the limbs with their girdles were 

 derived from a series of similar simple parallel rays, and that they 

 were originally a specialization of the continuous lateral folds or fins of 

 embryo fishes, and probably homologous with the lateral folds of the 

 adult lancelet (Aniphioxus). 



