4 ANNALS OF SCOTTISH NATURAL HISTORY 



and if congestion results in extension north and south or 

 east and west (as in the case of Pallas' Sand Grouse), or if 

 climatal phenomena be the principal factors apart from con- 

 gestion, then a corresponding wave of dispersal must take 

 place, expanding and increasing according to the force of 

 the outburst, density of the congestion, or violence of 

 meteorological change, and reaching farther with each 

 successive outburst 



How far the above remarks may be held as applicable 

 to the species presently being treated of, may become 

 apparent when we unite the links of our chain ; but we must 

 leave to the study of many similar migrational and distri- 

 butional phenomena, any final results indicating a general 

 law. 



The present distribution of the Starling on the Continent 

 and generally, we shortly epitomise from Dresser's " Birds of 

 Europe," vol. iv. p. 405. 



In Scandinavia it is common, and abundant on the coast 

 regions of Nordland : less abundant in Lofoten, and is very 

 rare north of these islands. At Tromsoe it is " repeatedly 

 observed " in spring and autumn (thus a migrant). Stray 

 individuals are met with in East Finmark, and found winter- 

 ing as far north as Vseroe in Lofoten. In Sweden it does not 

 range so far north as in Norway, "not being found above 

 Northern Angermanland and Umea in 64 N. It occurs 

 commonly in South and West Finland, but not in the north 

 and north-east portions. It is rare in the Archangel Govern- 

 ment in North Russia, but general in Central Russia and 

 common in the South and the Ural, south of 67 N., and 

 eastwards through Eastern Siberia and India. The allied 

 forms 5. purpurascens, Gould, 5. nitens, Hume, being com- 

 paratively local geographical races (cf. Dresser, op. cit.} But 

 perhaps nowhere is the Starling so abundant as in the 

 plains of Holland. 



The above Continental dispersal, even at the date of 

 Dresser's great work, surely indicates the extension along the 

 parallels or slightly across them from east to west or south 

 of east to north of west, which has been shown is the 

 present direction of general migration of many species, from 



