576 CIVIL ENGINEERING 



Whilst the above reflections may appear to be merely "glitter- 

 ing generalities" they are in fact fundamental requirements in the 

 successful execution of great projects, since, however thoroughly 

 an inventor may have convinced himself of the great practical 

 economy of his theory, he cannot point to his demonstration as a 

 basis for public confidence and the underwriting of his conceptions, 

 until he has established his precedent; and, on the other hand, it is 

 impracticable to establish his claims by actual works, until he has 

 secured his capital and authority. Especially is this true of great 

 improvements involving governmental jurisdiction, where the per- 

 sonnel and responsibility for appropriations are constantly shifting, 

 and trained experts are not permanently available in the conduct 

 of the works. Although this is a problem of government, it is inti- 

 mately related to the questions at issue, viz., the work of the civil 

 engineer in providing the way for the safe, rapid, and economical 

 distribution of the products of the earth for the benefit of mankind. 

 Works of this class, requiring the opening of lines of least resistance 

 between distant centres, are impracticable without the exercise of 

 the rights of eminent domain, accompanied by the accumulation 

 of large amounts of capital and the control of labor wherelry the 

 physical resistances to traffic may be reduced to a minimum. 



Of the three elements, earth, water, and air, the first offers the 

 greatest resistance because of its density and the irregularity of its 

 surface. It has therefore been the crucial problem of all ages so to 

 modify it that "every valley shall be exalted and every mountain 

 and hill shall be made low, and the crooked shall be made straight 

 and the rough places plain," that a highway might be there, over 

 which the peaceful revolutions of the wheels of commerce might 

 cement the nations of the earth and distribute its products. But 

 whilst history testifies to the excellence in alignment, grades, and 

 durability of some of the ancient roads, it fails to record any evi- 

 dences of such magnificent avenues of trade as have been devel- 

 oped within the space of a single life in the railways constructed 

 during the past century. 



These were unknown and impossible prior to 1825, since the 

 state of the mechanic arts did not furnish materials in sufficient 

 quantity and quality to permit of such constructions. The demand, 

 however, created the supply, the storehouses of the earth yielded 

 an abundance of the raw materials, the railways and waterways 

 assembled them at convenient centres of industry, the metallurg- 

 ist and chemist refined and reduced them to improve their quality 

 and durability; the mechanical and electrical engineers developed 

 new machinery for increasing the output at reduced cost, and thus 

 supplied the markets with structural materials for roads, bridges, 

 and buildings far beyond any possible conception of even fifty 



