768 THE URBAN COMMUNITY 



be traced on those distinctly visible natural lines which pointed out 

 the ways to the statesman. 



The embodiment of free urban communities into a firmly organized 

 state is a problem. An important part of the difficulties in the 

 structure of the administrative organization of the different states 

 has to deal with this one problem. How difficult it is to comprehend, 

 in this regard, national peculiarities is shown especially by the 

 various, partly contrasting opinions which can be heard, in a foreign 

 country, about the condition of the urban communities of Germany. 



Frequently one finds there the notion that a free civic activity 

 does not exist at all in Germany. This conception was formed in 

 consequence of certain occurrences in German urban life which have 

 gained publicity and attracted greatest attention. These were cases 

 in which the government of the state had not sanctioned the elections 

 of mayors and members of the magistracy. Of foreigners who have 

 spent some time in Germany, especially of Americans, one hears 

 quite often the opposite opinion, that they were astonished by the 

 great, free, and fruitful activity of citizens' spirit which they recom- 

 mend to their own countries as an example. In reality, either 

 conception is correct; there exist limitations for the German cities 

 which are unconformable to citizens' self-administration and, as 

 the experience of other states shows, unnecessary for the purpose of 

 a firm state organization. But there remains, nevertheless, a con- 

 siderable space for free activity, for great aims. However conscious 

 we must remain in Germany that we have to strive after the im- 

 provement of the position which is prescribed to the cities in the 

 state, yet we are not forced, in view of this need of improvement, to 

 decline the favorable judgment of the foreign nations about the 

 accomplishment and partly also the organization of our cities. We 

 must not believe that the difficult problem of the embodiment of the 

 free city into the German state organism has been solved; but we 

 may probably accept the complement that a remarkable attempt is 

 made in this line. The difficulties to be considered can be clearly 

 seen from history. 



From the thirteenth to the sixteenth century the urban develop- 

 ment of entire western Europe bears that bold feature of autonomic 

 expansion of culture and power which we have seen in the ancient 

 " city-states " of Athens and Rome. The history of Italy consists 

 almost exclusively of the history of its urban communities. If 

 Milan sacks Lodi and Como, this means that in its realm no other 

 citizen's right shall exist besides the Milanese. At the time of the 

 Crusades, Genoa and Venice founded a circle of settlements around 

 the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea which had their common 

 government in the city authorities of Venice and Genoa. The same 

 was the case when in Spain the urban community of Barcelona took 



