RELATION TO SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 97 



Puritans in Massachusetts and Connecticut, and the Nonconformist 

 academies in England. Such, too, are the schools under the control 

 of the Holy Synod in Russia. Such school systems are, in the nature 

 of things, rarely coterminous with the whole area of national life. 

 In some cases the range of this influence extends over parts of more 

 nations than one. (3) A third group has had for the dominant 

 purpose the training of competent recruits for the service of church 

 or state, whether as administrators, secretaries, officials, diplomatists, 

 or members of the clerical and other learned professions. When 

 church and state have been in close alliance, this group has been 

 virtually identical with that ju&t mentioned. This training of com- 

 petent recruits for the church or public service was the aim of the 

 clerkly education of the Middle Ages - - the educational ladder up 

 which climbed so many brilliant boys of humble birth. This was 

 William of Wykeham's intention when, after the depletion of the 

 ranks of the English clergy by the Black Death, he founded St. 

 Mary's College at Winchester. Such was the far-seeing purpose of 

 the makers of New England in their policy with regard to secondary 

 and higher education, and such, too, was, in great measure, the 

 motive for the reorganization, under the influence of Humbolclt and 

 his successors, of the higher schools which have ever since been one of 

 the institutional glories of Germany. (4) A fourth group of school 

 systems has aimed at what may be called rescue-work, at saving 

 the neglected classes from moral and educational destitution. Such 

 was the intention of the schools for poor children instituted by 

 Catholic piety in France in the seventeenth century; and of the 

 schools of industry established by benevolent social reformers in 

 England during the reign of Queen Anne, a movement which drew 

 part of its inspiration from the work of Francke at Halle. Such, 

 too, was the first aim of Pestalozzi and the purpose of the most 

 distinguished supporters of Lancaster and of Bell in England in 

 the early years of the nineteenth century. (5) The dominant aim 

 of a fifth group has been the opening up of new social and economical 

 opportunities for the children of all classes, in the belief that it is 

 to the interest of the whole community to multiply opportunities 

 of self-advancement for strenuous individuals possessing intellectual 

 grit and persistence of purpose. This has been the most character- 

 istic note of the democratic educational movement which draws its 

 philosophy and inspiration from the more individualistic theories of 

 the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. (6) The sixth group aims 

 more definitely at the consolidation of the national life by impreg- 

 nating the masses with national feelings. Such, rather than the 

 more individualistic aim, was advocated by Mazzini, and such 

 has been the chief purpose of those who have developed the state 

 primary school system in France under the Third Republic. In 



