EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 351 



was suppressed. The hand of Napoleon then made itself felt in the 

 new organization. Centralization in education became the order 

 of the day. The universities, originally independent, were con- 

 solidated into one great institution, the Universite nationale de 

 France, of which the Universite de Paris and the faculties at Tou- 

 louse, Montpellier, and elsewhere in the provinces were sections 

 known as academies. The whole system of education was directly 

 under the minister of public instruction, entirely a government 

 affair. Everything went on automatically and with such clock- 

 work precision that it was said the minister could tell a visitor not 

 only what subject was being taught throughout France at a par- 

 ticular time, but the verb itself that was being conjugated just then 

 in all the schools. 



III. RECENT SWEEPING CHANGES; 

 THE "UNIVERSITY DEGREES." 



Since those times there have been a great many changes, 

 covering the entire educational field in France. Together with 

 colonial expansion and the reorganization of the army, the 

 educational transformation is the most considerable undertak- 

 ing the government has accomplished. Characterized briefly, it 

 is this: 



Public instruction has been developed in all directions and 

 withdrawn as far as possible from the influence of the church. The 

 laws relating to primary instruction have been improved and 

 elementary education has been made free and obligatory. More- 

 over, France has awakened to a realization of the benefits to be 

 derived by making her educational centers attractive to foreign 

 students. Before the act of July 10, 1896, higher education was 

 entirely under the control of the minister of public instruction. 

 The act of July 10, 1896, did away with State control of the insti- 

 tutions for higher education, giving to them an independent 

 existence of their own. Thus this act abolished Napoleon's consol- 

 idated organization, the Universite nationale de France, and restored 

 the academies to their former status of universities. These institu- 

 tions are no longer under State control, for the regulations govern- 

 ing them are made by the University Council, a body consisting 

 of the principal members of the various faculties. Moreover, 

 the French universities now have a legal standing like that of 

 individuals, and may receive bequests or gifts from any one 



