APPENDIX I: INVENTIONS 447 



by the decarbonization of cast-iron, a process which initiated what 

 has been called the "age of steel," was introduced by Bessemer (1813- 

 1898) in 1856. Bessemer's attention was drawn to the subject by 

 his recognition of the necessity of improving gun-metal. Bessemer's 

 process was at first only partially successful, but since others have 

 shown how to improve it (by the addition of spiegeleisen, etc.) it 

 has reached enormous proportions. 



AGRICULTURAL APPARATUS AND INVENTIONS. - - Beginning about 

 1850 an era of improved agricultural apparatus began, of which one 

 result has been the opening of vast tracts of farm lands which might 

 otherwise have remained unproductive. Steel plows, better harrows, 

 mowing-machines, horse-power rakes, haymaking machinery, and 

 especially harvesters of ingenious design for cereal crops (first intro- 

 duced by McCormick in 1834), threshing-machines and spraying- 

 machines are to-day common, where these were almost unknown 

 before 1875. Machinery has also been applied to dairying, first to the 

 making of butter and cheese, and more recently even to the milking 

 of cows. Progress has also been made in the preservation of milk and 

 of eggs by condensing, drying, freezing, etc. by new and economical 

 processes invented and applied since that time. 



APPLIED SCIENCE. ENGINEERING. Very much as discoveries 

 and inventions blend together and as both spring from a common 

 source, manifested as curiosity, inquiry, experimentation and cor- 

 relation (i.e. from science), so applied science, including engineering, 

 comes from a common ancestry, i.e. from correlated knowledge, 

 which is science. Both terms are loosely used and both cover to-day 

 a multitude of diversified human activities. 



With the progress of science, arts and invention, engineering and 

 other forms of applied science have developed so that these frequently 

 have their own schools, either with or apart from universities and 

 colleges ; the school for miners at Freiberg, in Saxony, begun in 1765, 

 being now only one of hundreds of technological and scientific schools 

 for the training of engineers and others. Up to 1850 most engineers 

 in America were trained in military schools and were primarily military 

 engineers. But from that time forward the civil, as opposed to the 

 military, engineer began to appear, and from the parent stem of civil 

 engineering we now have mechanical, mining, electrical, sanitary, 

 chemical, marine and other branches of engineering, often highly 

 specialized. The term "engineer" is now very widely employed, with 



