THE MEANING OF PAIN 



expression assumed by the human face when 

 appealing for pity. This is one of the accidents 

 of anatomical structure. The elephant and 

 many simians, though far superior to these in 

 intelligence, have not this pitiful expression. 

 This is responsible for much misunderstand- 

 ing ; as it is interpreted by the careless thinker 

 in terms of human expression, when in fact it 

 is most probable that the animal has no con- 

 ception of pity or appeal and probably no idea 

 that it is threatened with danger or pain. It 

 is also just as true that a dog or cat will bite 

 or scratch the hand that helps it as it is that it 

 will lick the hand that harms it. 



Nor can we interpret the so-called struggles Reflex 

 of animals, under experiment without anes- movements, 

 thetics, as evidence of pain. Experience has 

 shown that they are mostly reflex. Passing 

 from the brain and spinal cord are two sets 

 of nerves, the sensory and the motor. In gen- 

 eral one goes to the skin the other to the 

 muscles. If the nerves or the spinal cord are 

 divided the sensations of pain can not reach 

 the brain and there is no pain, but still stimuli 

 are capable of transmitting reflex motor im- 

 pulses and causing motion. A horse can kick 

 after he is dead. After a horse's head has been 

 3 19 



