350 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY 



tively correct apparatus such as would be found in first-class stores. 

 Aside from these and by far the larger individual losses are those result- 

 ing from the use of false weights and measures and intentional cheating 

 either with false or comparatively correct apparatus. False apparatus is 

 generally very crude in construction and may easily be detected upon 

 examination, although in some cases test with standards are necessary. 

 The users of such apparatus depend to escape detection upon the unsus- 

 pecting attitude of the purchaser and their own dexterity in handling 

 the apparatus. Methods of cheating and false apparatus represent wide 

 varieties. Among the different types of false measures might be men- 

 tioned those having movable or false bottoms; measures having a por- 

 tion of the height cut away from either the top or bottom ; measures with 

 staves removed and the hoops and bottom adjusted accordingly; "bot- 

 tomless " measures which have relatively small diameters and high sides, 

 and which, although they contain the proper number of cubic inches, 

 give incorrect quantities on account of not permitting of a proper heap ; 

 measures with false interiors, such as have been found in milk cans and 

 measures for selling gasoline; and liquid measures used for dry com- 

 modities. This last practise is found in use to some extent in practically 

 all parts of the country and results in a shortage of about 14 per cent. 

 It is one of those practises which has come into use largely through 

 " trade custom." The use of correct scales of high quality is not in itself 

 a guarantee that correct amounts will be given, for it is possible for the 

 user of such apparatus to manipulate it to his own advantage ; but it is 

 usually with the poorer apparatus and small dealers where intentional 

 fraud is found. A type of scale which was formerly common among cer- 

 tain classes of dealers is the straight-face hand scale, with the graduated 

 face made movable so that the dealer might lower or raise it so as to make 

 the pointer indicate a lesser or greater amount than actually was the 

 case, according as he was buying or selling. Even-arm balances of cheap 

 construction may be made to vary considerably by placing the weights 

 and commodity in certain positions on the pans, which is done in an 

 apparently unintentional manner by the dealer and which would not be 

 noticed by the customer unless he were familiar with the action of such 

 scales. Counter-beam scales with a movable scoop and counterpoise may 

 very easily be used fraudulently by omitting the counterpoise when the 

 scoop is in place. These are a few of many ways in which apparatus 

 designed to give correct results may be changed or used to give incorrect 

 amounts. 



The results of the investigations, which were furnished to the state 

 and local officials, were an important factor in convincing the legisla- 

 tures of the states that the state laws and the facilities provided for 

 carrying them out were in most cases entirely inadequate to protect the 

 public not only from the use of fraudulent apparatus, but also the 

 fraudulent use of correct apparatus. The wide publicity given in some 



