34 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



PROFESSIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 



I. PROFESSIONS IN GENERAL* 

 By HERBERT SPENCER. 



WHAT character professional institutions have in common, 

 by which they are as a group distinguished from the other 

 groups of institutions contained in a society, it is not very easy 

 to say. But we shall be helped to frame an approximately true 

 conception by contemplating in their ultimate natures the func- 

 tions of the respective groups. 



The lives of a society and of its members are in one way or 

 other subserved by all of them: maintenance of the life of a 

 society, which is an insentient organism, being a proper proxi- 

 mate end only as a means to the ultimate end maintenance of 

 the lives of its members, which are sentient organisms. The 

 primary function, considered either in order of time or in order 

 of importance, is defense of the tribal or national life preserva- 

 tion of the society from destruction by enemies. For the better 

 achievement of this end there presently comes some regulation 

 of life. Restraints on individual action are needful for the effi- 

 cient carrying on of war, which implies subordination to a leader 

 or chief ; and when successful leadership ends in permanent chief- 

 tainship, it brings, in course of further development, such regula- 

 tion of life within the society as conduces to efficiency for war 

 purposes. Better defense against enemies, thus furthered, is fol- 

 lowed by defense of citizens against one another ; and the rules of 

 conduct, originally imposed by the successful chief, come, after his 

 decease, to be re-enforced by the injunctions ascribed to his ghost. 

 So that, with the control of the living king and his agents, 

 there is gradually joined the control of the dead king and his 

 agents. Simultaneously with the rise of agencies for the defense 

 of life and the regulation of life, there grow up agencies for the 

 sustentation of life. Though at first food, clothing, and shelter 

 are obtained by each for himself, yet exchange, beginning with 

 barter of commodities, gradually initiates a set of appliances 

 which greatly facilitate the bodily maintenance of all. But now 

 the defense of life, the regulation of life, and the sustentation 

 of life, having been achieved, what further general function is 

 there ? There is the augmentation of life ; and this function it is 



* The series of articles to which this is introductory will in their eventual form be 

 chapters constituting Part VII of The Principles of Sociology Professional Institutions. 

 Hence the explanation of the various references and allusions to preceding parts of that 

 work which they will be found to contain. The various references to books will, as in 

 past cases, be found at the end of the volume when published. 



