PROFESSIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 745 



and philosophy by the priesthood in early days, scarcely needs 

 pointing out. Such philosophical dogmas as were current during 

 the ages of darkness were supplementary to the current theologi- 

 cal dogmas and in subordination to them. When, in the time of 

 Charlemagne, some intellectual life began, it was initiated by the 

 establishment of schools in connection with all abbeys through- 

 out his dominions. These schools, carried on under priestly rule, 

 eventually became the centers at once of philosophy and science : 

 the philosophy distinguished as scholasticism being of such kind 

 as consisted with the authorized theology, and the science 

 geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music being such as did 

 not obviously conflict with it or could be conformed to it. That 

 is to say, alike in their nature and in their agency, the philosophy 

 and science of the time diverged in a relatively small degree from 

 the theology the differentiation was but incipient. And the 

 long continued identification of the cultivators of philosophy and 

 science with the cultivators of theology is seen in the familiar 

 names of the leading scholastics William of Champeaux, Abe- 

 lard, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, etc. To which may be 

 added the notable fact that such independence of theological dog- 

 ma as was thought to be implied in the doctrine of the Nominal- 

 ists, was condemned alike by the Pope and by secondary ecclesias- 

 tical authorities the differentiation was slowly effected under 

 resistance. 



In England there was a no less clear identity of the priest with 

 the philosopher and the man of science. In his account of the 

 Saxon clergy Kemble writes : 



"They were honoi'ably distinguished by the possession of arts and 

 learning, which could be found in no other class. ... To them England 

 owed the more accurate calculations which enabled the divisions of times 

 and seasons to be duly settled." 



The first illustration is furnished by Bede, a monk who, besides ( 

 works of other kinds, wrote a work on The Nature of Tilings, in 

 which the scientific knowledge of his day was gathered up. Next 

 may be named Dicuil, an Irish monk and writer on geography. 

 And then comes Archbishop Dunstan : 



He "was very well skilled in most of the liberal arts, and among the 

 rest in refining metals and forging them ; which being qualifications much 

 above the genius of the age he lived in, first gained him the name of a con- 

 jurer, and then of a saint." 



Though, soon after the Conquest, there lived two cultivators of 

 science who seem not to have been clerical Gerland and Athelard 

 of Bath yet it is to be remarked of the first that his science was 

 devoted to a religious purpose making a Computus or calcula- 

 tion of Easter, and of the other that his scientific knowledge was 

 acquired during travels in the East, and can not be regarded as 



VOL. XLVII. 61 



