142 OEIOINAL ARTICLES. 



many fonns* of fishes and of birds. Almost all tlie parts of animals 

 differ one from another, according to their various capabilities of dis- 

 tinction, as, for instance, in colour or in shape, — in which respect some 

 are more aftected than others, some less, — or with reference to the 

 question of many or few, large or small size, in shorty in point of excess 

 and defect ; for some animals are crustaceous, others are testaceous ;t 

 some ha\'e a long beak, as Cranes, others a short one ; some have 

 many feathers, others only few ; moreover, even in these last-named 

 animals some ]>arts are different from others, for some are furnished 

 with spurs while others are not so provided; and some possess a crest, 

 others do not ; but to sum up, most of the parts of which the whole 

 body is composed are either the same or they differ in their conti'arie- 

 ties, according to excess and defect, for one may refer the terms 

 'more' or 'less,' to what we understand by 'excess' or 'defect.' 

 Again, some parts of animals are the same neither in form, nor in 

 respect of excess and defect, but by analogy; as a bone when compared 

 with a (fish's) spine, a nail with a hoof, a hand with a claw, and a 

 scale Avith a feather, for what a feather is to the bird, that a scale is 

 to a fish. AVith respect then to the parts which each living thing 

 possesses, tliey may be in this way both different and the same. 



Similarly also with regard to the position of the parts ; for many 

 animals possess the same parts, but they are differently situated ; 

 some, lor instance, have the mamma3 on the breast, others near the 

 thighs. Again, of similar parts, some are soft and moist, others diy 

 and hard ; by moist I mean that which is either altogether so, or 

 such as continues moist so long only as its nature admits, as blood, 

 serum, fat, suet, marrow, the generative fluid, gall, milk in those ani- 

 mals which possess it, flesh, and whatever is analogous to these 

 things ; one may also mention excrementitious matters, as phlegm, 

 and the sediments from the belly and the bladder. Dry and hard 

 parts are such as nerves, skin, veins, hair, bone, cartilage, nail, horn, 

 (for the part which has the same form has the same name, and in a 

 Avord, is called " horn "), and as many substances as are analogous to 

 these things. 



Now, the differences which exist between living things are in 

 7'eference to their modes of life, their actions, their dispositions, and 

 their parts. We will, first of all, speak of these things in a general 

 way, and subsequently attentively consider each particular kind. 

 The differences in reference to their modes of life, their actions, and 

 their dispositions are such as these,— some are aquatic animals, 

 others are terrestrial in their habits. The aquatic animals are so in 

 a twofold manner, some inasmuch as they spend their life and gain 



* tUoi; means literally " tliat which is seen," the " form or shape," like the 

 Latin Species; it must not be restricted to denote what zoologists understand by the 

 term xpccies ; Aristotle uses it in a more extensive sense. 



t (xaXaKosTQaKa is clearly the representative of the Crustacea ; offrpaKoSefi/ia 

 of the tcdoceous viollusc.i, which arc occasionally mentioned under the simple term 

 oarpioy. Scc ch. C § 1 ; und Ilk. V. 13. § 9. 



