146 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



more or less interfused, yet they are distinct in their origins and na- 

 tures. There is a spontaneous cooperation which grows up without 

 thought during the pursuit of private ends ; and there is a cooperation 

 which, consciously devised, implies distinct recognition of public ends. 

 The ways in which the two are respectively established and carried on 

 present marked contrasts. 



Whenever, in a primitive group, there begins that cooperation which 

 is effected by exchange of services whenever individuals find their 

 wants better satisfied by giving certain products which they can make 

 best in return for other products they are less skilled in making, or not 

 so well circumstanced for making there is initiated a kind of organiza- 

 tion which then, and throughout its higher stages, results from endeav- 

 ors to meet personal needs. The division of labor, to the last as at 

 first, grows by experience of mutual facilitations in living. Each new 

 specialization of industry arises from the effort of one who commences 

 it to get profit, and establishes itself by conducing in some way to the 

 profit of others. So that there is a kind of concerted action, with the 

 elaborate social organization developed by it, which does not originate 

 in deliberate concert. Though it is true that within the small sub- 

 divisions of this organization we find everywhere repeated the relation 

 of employer and employed, of whom the one directs the actions of the 

 other ; yet this relation, spontaneously formed in the pursuit of private 

 ends and continued only at will, is not made with conscious reference 

 to achievement of public ends : ordinarily these are not thought of. 

 And though, for the regulating of trading activities, there eventually 

 arise agencies serving to adjust the sujjplies of commodities to the 

 demands ; yet such agencies do this not by direct stimulations or 

 restraints, but simply by communicating information which serves to 

 stimulate or restrain ; and, further, these agencies themselves grow up 

 not for the intended purpose of thus regulating, but in the pursuit of 

 gain by individuals. So unintentionally has there arisen the elaborate 

 division of labor by which production and distribution are now carried 

 on, that only in modern days has there come a recognition of the fact 

 that it has all along been arising. 



On the other hand, that cooperation which unites the actions of 

 individuals for a purpose immediately concerning the whole society, 

 is a conscious cooperation, and is carried on by an organization of 

 another kind, arising in a different Avay. When the primitive group 

 has to defend itself against other gi'oups, its members act together 

 under further stimuli than those constituted by purely personal desires. 

 Even at the outset, before any control by a chief exists, there is the 

 control exercised by the group over its members ; each of whom is 

 obliged, by the consensus oi opinion, to join in the general defense. 

 Very soon the warrior of recognized superiority begins to exercise 

 over each, during war, an influence additional to that exercised by the 

 opinion of the group ; and, when his authority becomes established, it 



