RESEARCH IN MEDICINE 505 



is, is obtained from the cuneiform inscriptions which record the Baby- 

 lonic-Assyrian civilization. These records are of a medicine controlled 

 by the priesthood, closely linked to astrology and characterized by a 

 belief in the influence of metaphysical forces, gods and demons. They 

 do, however, contain references to the use of the knife in surgery, the 

 healing of fractures and the internal administration of herbs, but all 

 essential therapy is obscured by mysticism, ritual observances and 

 magical formula. From the point of view of diagnosis, it is of interest 

 that these records refer to the inspection of the urine and blood and to 

 the collection of a series of observations upon disease, what we would 

 now call the " clinical history " or record of a patient. These, however, 

 were taken, not as to-day to aid in the diagnosis, but had the value of 

 omens to aid the priest in his prophecy as to the outcome of the illness, 

 or as we would say to aid prognosis. Such records were of little value, 

 for without a knowledge of pathology — that is, of the underlying ana- 

 tomical changes responsible for the symptoms — they were on the same 

 level as astrological speculation and the interpretation of dreams. In- 

 ferences were not drawn from the empirical facts of clinical observa- 

 tions, but all observations were interpreted in the light of the super- 

 natural, the ritualistic and the magical. This veil we find over all an- 

 cient medicine. 



Egyptian medicine of a period 2,000 B.C. was much the same as the 

 Assyrian, but the priestly science, as taught in the schools of the 

 temples, developed a considerable knowledge of botany and zoology, 

 without, however, an insight into the structure and functions of the 

 human body. An extensive materia medica allowed the use of medi- 

 cines as draughts, electuaries, gargles, snufEs, inhalations, salves, 

 plasters, poultices, injections, suppositories, enemata and fumigations. 

 As to general surgery, there is no evidence, aside from circumcision 

 and castration, of operations other than those for the removal of surface 

 tumors. Yet ophthalmology, otology and dentistry were known and 

 practised as specialties. Obstetrics, on the other hand, does not ap- 

 pear to have been of interest to the physician. The hygiene of the 

 Egyptians ranked higher than their therapeutics and included definite 

 rules concerning meat inspection, bathing, clothing, diet, care of the 

 dwelling and of infants. Indeed there is much ground for the belief 

 that much of our modern hygiene can be traced back through Greek 

 and Hebrew to the pioneer work of the ancient Egyptians. 



Persian medicine is of little moment and differs but slightly from 

 that of other ancient peoples in its religious-hygienic measures. One 

 phase of religious belief was disastrous for the development of even 

 simple empiricism — the belief that the dead and the diseased were un- 

 clean. Such a view naturally made impossible the study of anatomy 

 and diagnosis. The sick, as unclean, were isolated, washed and purified 



