THE MILITANT TYPE OF SOCIETY. 761 



of domestic life, the forbidding of industry or any money-seeking 

 occupation, the interdict of going abroad without leave, and the au- 

 thorized censorship under which his days and nights were passed. 

 There was fully carried out in Sparta the Greek theory of society, 

 that "the citizen belongs neither to himself nor to his family, but to 

 his city." So that though in this exceptional case chronic militancy 

 was prevented from developing a supreme head, owning the individual 

 citizen in body and estate, yet it developed an essentially identical rela- 

 tion between the community as a whole and its units. The commu- 

 nity, exercising its power through a compound head instead of through 

 a simple head, completely enslaved the individual. While the lives 

 and labors of the Helots were devoted exclusively to the support of 

 those who formed the militant organization, the lives and labors of 

 those who formed the militant organization were exclusively devoted 

 to the service of the state they were slaves with a difference. 



Of modern illustrations that furnished by Russia will suffice. Here, 

 again, with the wars which effected conquests and consolidations, came 

 the development of the victorious commander into the absolute ruler, 

 who, if not divine by alleged origin, yet acquired something like di- 

 vine prestige. " All men are equal before God, and the Russian's God 

 is the Emperor," says De Custine ; *'the supreme governor is so raised 

 above earth that he sees no difference between the serf and the lord." 

 Under the stress of Peter the Great's wars, which, as the nobles com- 

 plained, took them away from their homes, " not, as formerly, for a 

 single campaign, but for long yeais," they became " the servants of 

 the state, without privileges, without dignity, subjected to corporal 

 punishment, and burdened with onerous duties from which there was 

 no escape. . . . Any noble who refused to serve (' the state in the 

 army, the fleet, or the civil administration, from boyhood to old 

 age ') was not only deprived of his estate, as in the old times, but was 

 declared to be a traitor, and might be condemned to capital punish- 

 ment." " Under Peter," says Wallace, " all offices, civil and mili- 

 tary," were " arranged in fourteen classes or ranks " ; and he " defined 

 the obligations of each with microscopic minuteness. After his death 

 the work was carried on in the same spirit, and the tendency reached 

 its climax in the reign of Nicholas." In the words of De Custine, 

 " the tchinn [the name for this organization] is a nation formed into a 

 regiment ; it is the military system applied to all classes of society, 

 even to those who never go to war." With this universal regimenta- 

 tion in structure went a regimental discipline. The conduct of life 

 was dictated to the citizens at large in the same way as to soldiers. 

 In the reign of Peter and his successors domestic entertainments were 

 appointed and regulated ; the people were compelled to change their 

 costumes ; the clergy to cut off their beards ; and even the harnessing 

 of horses was according to pattern. Occupations were controlled to 

 the extent that " no boyard could enter any profession, or forsake it 



