822 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



kitchens. To test this, go to one of those Swiss restaurants originally 

 instituted in this country by that enterprising Ticinese, the late Carlo 

 Gatti, and which are now so numerous in London and our other large 

 towns ; call for macaroni al sugo ; notice the rich, brown gravy, the 

 "sugo." Many an English cook would use half a pound of gravy- 

 beef to produce the like, but the basis of this is half an ounce of sugar, 

 or even less ; the sugar is browned by heating, not quite up to the 

 caramel state. Burnt onion may contribute, but this is only another 

 form of caramel with more savory properties. 



While engaged upon your macaroni, look around at the other 

 dishes served to other customers. Instead of the pale slices of meat 

 spread out in a little puddle of pale, watery liquid, that are served in 

 English restaurants of corresponding class, you will see dainty mor- 

 sels, covered with rich, brown gravy, or surrounded by vegetables 

 immersed in the same. This sugo is greatly varied according to the 

 requirements, by additions of stock-broth, tarragon-vinegar, ketchup, 

 etc., etc., but burnt sugar, or burnt onions, or burnt something is the 

 basis of it all, sugar being the cheapest. 



To further test the flavoring properties of browning, take some 

 eels cut up as usual for stewing ; divide into two portions ; stew one 

 brutally by this I mean simply in a little water serving them with 

 this water as a pale gravy or juice. Let the second portion be well 

 fried, fully browned, then stewed, and served with brown gravy. 

 Compare the result. Make a corresponding experiment with a beef- 

 steak. Cut it in two portions : stew one brutally in plain water ; fry 

 the other, then stew it and serve brown. 



Take a highly-baked loaf, better one that is black outside ; scrape 

 off the film or crust that is quite black, i. e., completely carbonized, 

 and you will come to a rich brown layer, especially if you operate 

 upon the bottom crust. Slice off a thin shaving of this, and eat it 

 critically. Mark its high flavor as compared with the comparatively 

 insipid crumb of the same loaf, and note especially the resemblance 

 between this flavor and that of the caramel from sugar, and that of 

 the browned eels and browned steak. A delicate way of detecting 

 the flavor due to the browning of bread is to make two bowls of 

 bread and milk in the same manner, one with the crust, the other 

 with the crumb of the same loaf. I am not suggesting these as ex- 

 amples of better or worse flavor, but as evidence of the fact that 

 much flavor of some sort is generated. It may be out of place, as I 

 think it is, in the bread and milk, or it may be added with much 

 advantage to other things, as it is by the cook who manipulates 

 caramel and its analogues skillfully. 



The largest constituent of bread is starch. Excluding water, it 

 constitutes about three fourths of the weight of good wheaten flour. 

 Starch differs but little from sugar in composition. It is easily con- 

 verted into sugar by simply heating it with a little sulphuric acid, and 



