THE INDUSTRIAL TYPE OF SOCIETY. 15 



contemplate the contrasts which suhsequently arose. For a century 

 and a half after these civil conflicts ended, there were but few and 

 trivial breaches of internal peace, while such wars as went on with 

 foreign powers, not numerous, took place as usual out of England ; 

 and during this period the retrograde movement which the Wars of 

 the Roses set up was reversed and popular power greatly increased ; 

 so that, in the words of Mr. Bagehot, "the slavish Parliament of Henry 

 VIII grew into the murmuring Parliament of Queen Elizabeth, the 

 mutinous Parliament of James I, and the rebellious Parliament of 

 Charles I." Meanwhile France, during the first third of this period, 

 had been engaged in almost continuous external wars with Italy, Spain, 

 and Austria ; while during the remaining two thirds it suffered from 

 almost continuous internal wars, religious and political ; the accom- 

 panying result being that, notwithstanding resistances from time to 

 time made, the monarchy became increasingly despotic. To make fully 

 manifest the different social types that had been evolved under these 

 different conditions, we have to compare not only the respective political 

 constitutions but also the respective systems of social control. Observe 

 what these were at the time when there commenced the reaction which 

 ended in the French Revolution. In harmony with the theory of the 

 militant type, that the individual is, in life, liberty, and property, owned 

 by the state, the monarch had come to be universal proprietor. Giv- 

 ing nothing in return, he took whatever houses and lands he pleased ; 

 and the burdens he imposed on land-owners were so grievous that some 

 of them preferred abandoning their estates to paying. Then, besides 

 the taking of property by the state, there was the taking of labor. 

 One fourth of the working-days in the year went as corvees, due to 

 the king and in part to the feudal lord. Such liberties as were allowed 

 had to be paid for again and again ; the municipal privileges of towns 

 being seven times in twenty-eight years withdrawn and resold to them. 

 Military services of nobles and people were imperative to whatever 

 extent the king demanded ; and conscripts were drilled under the 

 lash. At the same time that the subjection of the individual to the 

 state was pushed to such an extreme by exactions of money and ser- 

 vices that the impoverished people cut the grain while it was green, 

 ate grass, and died of starvation in millions, the state did little to 

 guard their persons and homes. Contemporary writers enlarge on the 

 multitudinous highway robberies, burglaries, assassinations, and tort- 

 urings of people to discover their hoards ; herds of vagabonds, levy- 

 ing black-mail, roamed about, and when, as a remedy, penalties were 

 imposed, innocent persons denounced as vagabonds were sent to prison 

 without evidence. There was no personal security either against the 

 ruler or against powerful enemies : in Paris there were some thirty 

 prisons where untried and unsentenced people might be incarcerated ; 

 and the " brigandage of justice " annually cost suitors forty to sixty 

 millions of francs. While the state, aggressing on citizens to such 



