73 8 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



Logic or dialectic, therefore, in the hands of Aristotle was a mere 

 method of testing the truth of philosophical systems : he never sup- 

 posed that syllogism could be applied to the discovery of the truths 

 of physics. Both he and Plato foreshadowed and adopted the induct- 

 ive method for the discovery of truth ; in which, however, he was not 

 very successful. 



The scholastic philosophy of the middle ages was the attempt to 

 combine the idealism of Plato with the logic and dialectics of Aris- 

 totle : but, unfortunately, it attempted to apply the syllogistic method 

 to the discovery of truth. 



"When Christianity became known to philosophers, the Platonists 

 perceived that there was much in it in accordance with their system. 

 They were the first of philosophers to adopt it, and they endeavored 

 to combine it with their own philosophy. 



As the general intellect decayed in the decadence of the Western 

 Empire, all originality vanished. The highest literature fell into ob- 

 livion. Theology was taught from books ; and consequently writers 

 confined themselves exclusively to commenting on the usual text-books. 

 St. Augustine and some of the Latin fathers were still read ; but the 

 whole course of philosophy consisted of some parts of Aristotle's 

 " Organon," Plato's " Timams," and a few tracts of Cicero and Seneca. 

 A few lessons in grammar and logic, with just enough mathematics 

 and astronomy to calculate Easter, were the highest instruction. The 

 age of Charlemagne was the nadir of the human intellect. Soon after 

 him appeared the first original genius of the middle ages. Paschasius 

 had asserted the doctrine of transubstantiation. John Scotus Erigena 

 was employed to refute it. He was a realist and a mystic : his work 

 marked the revival of metaphysical speculation. 



About the middle of the eleventh century Berengar, Archdeacon 

 of Tours, revived the eucharistic controversy, adopting the same side 

 as Erigena. Berengar's doctrines, founded upon reasoning, and sup- 

 ported by much profane learning, greatly agitated the Church ; and 

 he was combated by Lanf ranc in the name of authority, and afterward 

 by Anselm, who endeavored to reunite the claims of reason and faith. 

 These metaphysical controversies about the deepest mysteries of faith 

 revived the old contests of Plato and Aristotle. 



Realist views were then generally current ; but about the same 

 period Roscelin, Canon of Compiegne, strongly adopted the nominal- 

 ist side. In discussing the mystery of the Trinity he gradually lapsed 

 into tritheism. The Church was shocked and alarmed, and in 1092 

 he was condemned by the Council of Soissons, and obliged to leave 

 France. The impiety which resulted from nominalism produced a 

 reaction in favor of realism. Anselm and William of Champeaux 

 thundered against him on the realistic side. 



But a doughty champion revived the fortunes of nominalism. 

 Abelard pointed out the absurd consequences of realism, and William 



