SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 419 



a composite picture, as it were, of the thing or quality. In discussing wages 

 and profits he represents these two terms as essentially identical and makes 

 compensation for risk a separate thing. They are paid with the residue of 

 production after the service of land and capital are requited. The wage- 

 earner's assurance, he says, of receiving the approximate value of his prod- 

 uct rests solely upon the effectiveness of competition among employers. 

 His wage is, however, guaranteed from falling very low by his own power 

 of producing directly for the market. This in turn is limited by his lack 

 of capital. Prof. Davenport accounts for international trade like exchanges 

 between individuals on the theory that each party finds he can satisfy his 

 desires at less sacrifice by making one kind of goods and exchanging the 

 surplus for the surplus of the different kind of goods produced by the other 

 party. In measuring the " sacrifice " or cost, however, other than material 

 things often have weight. The latter portion of the work is devoted to 

 practical economic questions of the day. Here he discusses the competi- 

 tive system and the remedy which is claimed to lie in socialism. He sees a 

 promising field of usefulness for trades unions in establishing emergency 

 workshops between which exchanges could take place by barter. Other 

 topics that receive attention are State ownership of transportation and 

 other industries, the social function of the rich, race improvement, the eco- 

 nomic influence of fashion, taxation, various labor topics, and the cur- 

 rency. His general method of treating these matters is to point out the 

 conflicting considerations that bear upon them, but without assuming to 

 declare which outweighs the other. If the work resembled many others, 

 in presenting one view of each topic as the only correct one, it would be 

 much easier to describe, but we can not say that it would be as useful to its 

 readers. 



While fully appreciating the value of Froebel's kindergarten work, Mr. 

 Hughes wishes teachers to realize that Froebel laid down principles of the 

 greatest worth in more advanced education.* He has accordingly, in this 

 volume, set forth the philosophy of Froebel's system, giving a chapter to 

 each of its most prominent features. Comparing Froebel with Pestalozzi 

 and Herbart, Mr. Hughes says : " Pestalozzi was instinctive and inspira- 

 tional, Froebel was philosophical and investigative. . . . Pestalozzi's pupils 

 were reproductive ; Froebel's were creative. . . . Herbart studied the child 

 to mold it ; Froebel studied it to guide it in its growth. . . . Herbart saw 

 the need of control much more clearly than the need of freedom ; Froebel 

 saw the harmony between freedom and control." Froebel's fundamental 

 law, according to our author, is that of unity or inner connection. " He 

 saw the unity between knowing, feeling, and willing, between analysis and 

 synthesis, between thought and life. He saw the unity or inner connection 

 of all created things so clearly, that he made the reconciliation of opposites 

 an important element of his system. He believed this law of unity, inner 

 connection, or vital interrelationship to be universal, and made it the fun- 

 damental law and the ultimate aim of all true educational effort." The 

 most fruitful of Froebel's principles was that of self-activity on the part of 

 the child " the spontaneous effort of the child to make manifest to itself 

 and others the inner concejjtions and operations of its own mind." This is 



* Froebel's Education Laws for All Teachers. By James L. Hughes. International Education 

 Series, Vol. XLI. New York : D. Appleton & Co. Pp. 890, 12mo. Pi-ice, $1.50. 



