474 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



The result of the combat was religiously believed to be "the judg- 

 ment of God " between the parties. 



We have said that in those ages no science existed. Let us add 

 that it was then universally taken for certain truth that the earth was 

 flat ; that the skies were a dome of hard adamant, which inclosed and 

 covered the world like the walls and roof of a building ; that the stars 

 were occult beings having good or evil influences over men ; that the 

 winds and the floods, the rain and the crops were either special dis- 

 pensations of Providence, independent of any original design or law, 

 or were, when unfavorable, the act of evil spirits or magical opera- 

 tions. The monuments of Roman architecture were allowed to go to 

 ruin. The art of building had been almost forgotten, and was limited 

 to the erection of rough and uncouth fortresses and walls suited to 

 keep men and horsemen at bay. These were usually located on the 

 tops of almost inaccessible rocks. The people lived in huts ; they ate 

 with their hands ; food was cooked without pots or kettles, on the 

 embers, or roasted on spits. Candles were unknown, stockings were 

 unknown, clothing was made of dressed skins, and, though some woven 

 fabrics were made by means of hand-looms, they were so inferior that 

 the ordinary stuffs worn by the people of the present day would have 

 been then considered as luxurious finery fit for a king to wear. 



We forgot also to mention, in relation to the trial by battle, that 

 the lawyers of those days did not gain their suits by means of evi- 

 dence, authorities quoted out of books, and speeches or arguments 

 addressed to the courts ; but the lawyers were men-at-arms, expert in 

 the use of the sword, the lance, the mace, and the baton and the 

 parties, when they were able, would hire them to fight out the case in 

 the arena as gladiators. Thus the case would be decided in favor of 

 him whose lawyer beat, or cut down, or unhorsed his adversary's law- 

 yer. Those were indeed the days when might was right. 



Our object in giving this sketch of the state of civilization in the 

 eighth and ninth centuries is, to contrast the condition of society 

 then with what it is now, and to inquire how mankind could emerge 

 from that order of things to the present stage of human progress. 

 By what means were barbarism, universal ignorance, and superstition 

 to be overcome ? From whom was the first light to come ? Who 

 was to take the first step toward a better order or higher knowledge ? 



The impediments were of the most formidable character. Every- 

 body was ignorant except the few clerks, or clergymen, we have 

 mentioned, and even the range of their knowledge, beyond theology, 

 was very limited. All around them was darkness, and naught indi- 

 cated even a gleam of light or liberty. 



By whom or when was the first step taken ? By the very clerks 

 or book-men we have mentioned, during the reign of Charlemagne in 

 France, and that of Alfred in England. Long had they labored in the 

 solitude of their cloisters to enlarge the scope of their learning. As- 



