NEW CHAPTERS IN THE WARFARE OF SCIENCE. 725 



proves simply that the old stone mallet-heads have survived as 

 implements cheap and fairly effective. 



The argument from Comparative Ethnology in support of 

 the view that the tendency of mankind is upward has received 

 strength from many sources. Comparative Philology shows that 

 in the less civilized, barbarous, and savage races childish forms 

 of speech prevail ; — frequent reduplications and the like, of which 

 we have survivals in the later and even in the most highly devel- 

 oped languages. In various languages, too, we find relics of 

 ancient modes of thought in the simplest words and expressions 

 used for arithmetical calculations. Words and phrases for this 

 purpose are frequently found to be derived from the words for 

 hands, feet, fingers, and toes, just as clearly as in our own lan- 

 guage some of our simplest measures of length are shown by their 

 names to have been measures of parts of the human body, as the 

 cubit, the foot, and the like, and therefore to date from a time 

 when exactness was not required. To add another out of many 

 examples, it is found to-day that various rude nations go through 

 the simplest arithmetical processes by means of pebbles. Into 

 our own language through the Latin has come a word showing 

 that our distant progenitors reckoned in this way. The word 

 calculate gives us an absolute proof of this. According to the 

 theory of the Duke of Argyll, men ages ago used pebbles (calculi) 

 in performing the simplest arithmetical calculations because we 

 to-day "calculate " No reduction to absurdity could be more 

 thorough. The simple fact must be that we " calculate " because 

 our remote ancestry used pebbles in their arithmetic. 



So, too, Comparative Literature and Folk-Lore show childish 

 modes of viewing nature and childish ways of expressing the 

 relations of man to nature among peoples of a low culture to- 

 day, such as clearly survive from a remote ancestry ; note- 

 worthy among these are the beliefs in witches and fairies, and 

 multitudes of popular and poetic expressions in the most civilized 

 nations. 



So, too, Comparative Ethnography, the basis of Ethnology, 

 shows in contemporary barbarians and savages a childish love of 

 playthings and games, of which we have many survivals. 



All these facts, which were at first unobserved, or observed as 

 a matter of no significance, have been brought into connection 

 with a fact in Biology acknowledged alike by all important schools, 

 by Agassiz on one hand and by Darwin on the other — namely, 

 as stated by Agassiz, that " the young states of each species and 

 group resemble older forms of the same group," or, as stated by 

 Darwin, that " in two or more groups of animals, however much 

 they may at first differ from each other in structure and habits, 

 if they pass through closely similar embryonic stages, we may 



