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THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



men of learning as could be found. The 

 emperor was fond of music, and promoted 

 the reform of church singing, introducing 

 the Gregorian Chants, and it is said, also 

 the organ. But his reform in education, 

 and that of Alfred in England a half-century 

 later, were temporary in their effects. Dur- 

 ing the three centuries after the death of 

 Charlemagne, learning languished in Europe, 

 but among the Arabs at this period it was 

 flourishing. About 1100 there arose studia 

 generalia, or what we should now designate 

 as professional schools, called forth, as Pro- 

 fessor Laurie believes, by the growth of 

 learning demanding specialization, by the 

 rise of a lay feeling in connection with the 

 work of the physician, the lawyer, and even 

 the theologian, and by the actual special- 

 izing of the three leading studies at differ- 

 ent centers of instruction. These schools 

 were open to all the world, free from mo- 

 nastic rule, and self-governing. The name 

 university came later. In 1224, Frederick II 

 combined the three faculties with a school 

 of arts at Naples, and incorporated the 

 University of Naples, with definite author- 

 ity and privileges. The University of Bo- 

 logna first became noted as a school of civil 

 law ; later instruction in canon law, arts, 

 medicine, and theology, came to be given. 

 The University of Paris had a similar grad- 

 ual development. The term univcrsitas had 

 at first no reference to the scope of the cur- 

 riculum, but meant simply a community. In 

 form of government, the literary communi- 

 ties copied the free trade-guilds. The rights 

 to practice and to teach medicine were the 

 first degrees. The degree of Baccalaureus 

 Arlium originally marked the end of what 

 was regarded as a preparatory course, fit- 

 ting the student to commence his study in 

 arts for the master's or teacher's degree. 

 Professor Laurie sets the time of the be- 

 ginning of university life at Oxford, at 

 about 1140, and at Cambridge about 1200, 

 and he thinks their university organization 

 arose about 1230, after the large migration 

 of students came to them from Paris. The 

 University of Prague, founded in 1348, by 

 Charles IV, was the starting-point of the 

 great German system of universities. It 

 followed the plan of Paris, where Charles 

 had been a student. In his closing chap- 

 ter Professor Laurie gives an interesting 



account of the university studies and the 

 conditions of graduation in the twelfth and 

 thirteenth centuries, from which the reader 

 may learn how many current academic forms 

 are survivals of mediaeval practices. 



Elements of Physiological Psychology. 

 By George T. Ladd, Professor of Phi- 

 losophy in Yale University. New York : 

 Charles Scribncr's Sons, 1887. Pp. 696. 

 Price, $4.50. 



"We consider this the best book that has 

 ever been published in America upon that 

 particular branch of psychology of which it 

 principally treats. It deals chiefly with 

 the nervous mechanism and correlations 

 with the mind, embracing under the latter 

 head questions of the localization of cere- 

 bral functions, the quality of sensations, their 

 quantity, the various presentations of sense, 

 the time-relations of mental phenomena, 

 feelings and motions, the physical basis of 

 the higher faculties, and certain statical re- 

 lations of the body and mental phenomena. 

 Thus far and within these limits the book 

 is excellent. The latest results of the study 

 of mind from the physical point of view 

 are thoroughly exhibited. The fruits of 

 German study are especially well presented, 

 and the recent work done by the Johns Hop- 

 kins University scholars in establishing the 

 existence of the temperature sense, we arc 

 glad to see, meets, with the author's recogni- 

 tion. Without taking the space to particu- 

 larize merits, and without searching for 

 particular and minor defects, we are justi- 

 fied, upon the whole, in commending highly 

 this work as far as the close of Part Second. 



The third part, entitled " The Nature of 

 Mind," ought to have been entirely omitted. 

 It is not only superfluous, but painfully un- 

 satisfactory. No sufficient foundation is laid 

 for what is said, and the treatment itself 

 is extremely inadequate. Until the other 

 branches of psychology beyond the physio- 

 logical are considered, even hypotheses or 

 surmises respecting the ultimate nature of 

 mind are out of place. The author in his in- 

 troduction attempts to justify the metaphysi- 

 cal discussions and theses with which the 

 work closes on the ground that psychology in- 

 evitably leads up to philosophical questions, 

 and must furnish the basis upon which they 

 are to be answered. Undoubtedly so ; but 

 that does not warrant a writer who makes 



