ON THE EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY. 259 



regularized by apportionment of duties. This coordination of func- 

 tions, and consequent mutual dependence of parts, conduce to con- 

 solidation of the group as an organic whole. Gradually it becomes 

 impracticable for any member to carry on his life by himself, de- 

 prived not only of the family aid and protection, but of the food and 

 clothing yielded by the domesticated animals. So that the industrial 

 arrangements conspire with the governmental arrangements to pro- 

 duce a well-compacted aggregate, internally coherent and externally 

 marked oif definitely from other aggregates. 



This process is furthered by disappearance of the less developed. 

 Other things equal, those groups which are most subordinate to their 

 leaders will succeed best in battle. Other things equal, those which, 

 submitting to commands longer, have grown into larger groups, will 

 thus benefit. And other things equal, advantages will be gained by 

 those in which, under dictation of the patriarch, the industrial coop- 

 eration has been rendered efficient. So that, by survival of the fittest 

 among pastoral groups struggling for existence with one another, 

 those which obedience to their heads and mutual dependence of parts 

 have made the strongest will be those to spread ; and in course of 

 time the patriarchal type will thus become well marked. Not, in- 

 deed, that entire disappearance of less-organized groups must result ; 

 since regions favorable to the process described facilitate the sur- 

 vival of smaller hordes, pursuing lives more predatory and less 

 pastoral. So that there may simultaneously grow up larger clusters 

 which develop into pastoral tribes, and smaller clusters which subsist 

 mainly by robbing them. 



Mark next how, under these circumstances, there arise certain 

 arrangements respecting ownership. The division presupposed by 

 individualization of property cannot be carried far without appliances 

 which savage life does not furnish. Measures of time, measures of 

 quantity, measures of value, are required. When from the primitive 

 appropriation of things found, caught, or made, we pass to the acqui- 

 sition of things by barter and by service, we see that approximate 

 equality of value between the exchanged things is implied ; and in 

 the absence of recognized equivalence, which must be exceptional, 

 there will be great resistance to barter. Among savages, therefore, 

 property extends but little beyond the things a man can procure for 

 himself. Kindred obstacles occur in the pastoral group. How can 

 the value of the labor contributed by each to the common weal be 

 measured? To-day the cowherd can feed his cattle close at hand ; to- 

 morrow he must drive them far and get back late. Here the shepherd 

 tends his flock in rich pasture; and in a region next visited the sheep 

 disperse in search of scanty food, and he has great trouble in getting 

 in the strayed ones. No accounts of labor spent by either can be 

 kept, and thei-e are no current rates of wages to give ideas of their 

 respective claims to shares of produce. The work of the daughter or 



