694 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



led them to face the difficulties resolutely, and devise " new internal 

 relations " to meet " new external relations ; " to bring about, as" it 

 were, a closer " corresj)ondence between the organization and its en- 

 vironment." They learned that the " degree of life varied with the 

 degree of correspondence ; " that along with complexity of organiza- 

 tion there goes an increase in the number, in the range, in the spe- 

 cialty, in the complexity of " adjustments of inner relations to outer 

 relations," in what may perhaps be termed "the evolution of the 

 piano-forte." 



Their first, rather uncouth-looking instruments, with enormously 

 large, solid wooden frames, appeared as an "unmixed breed," and 

 therefore so far stable. They did not succumb so readily to the 

 climate, and even presented peculiarities that attracted attention in 

 Europe. The native woods of which they were made were found 

 to be better adapted to the climate; polish was used even for the 

 sound-boards, in preference to varnish, which evaporated, and other 

 slight changes were adopted with great benefit. Yet still the requi- 

 site degree of strength could not be obtained from wood alone, and 

 the comfortable classes using pile carpets, heavy curtains, soft cush- 

 ions, and other warmth-retaining substances in their drawing-rooms, 

 demanded a piano-forte that could make itself heard in the presence 

 of so many deadeners of sound. Iron was then employed in combina- 

 tion with wood, but, the action of the two materials being by no means 

 uniform under constantly-changing conditions, the desired equilibrium 

 was not gained. In some instances the transverse swelling of the 

 wood fractured the iron plates. Although tliis " mixed constitution " 

 failed to meet the requirements then, the combination is now better 

 understood. 



The first intention of the application of iron of the liarp-shaped 

 metallic rinor was not to enable the instrument to endure the constant 

 strain of the strings. It was supposed that the metal would expand 

 and contract uniformly with them, in the severe changes of this cli- 

 mate, and that in this manner the instrument would remain longer in 

 tune, although the actual pitch might vary. 



In 1837 the highly-skillful American maker, Mr. Jonas Chicker- 

 ing, conceived the bold idea of constructing a frame entirely of iron, 

 and in the same year made his first square piano-forte in this way. 

 In 1840 he produced the first grand piano-forte Avith an entire iron 

 frame all in one casting. By this remarkable invention the piano-forte 

 gained in truth an " iron constitution," competent to bear the atmos- 

 pheric changes of this climate, and to it all subsequent successes are 

 referred. 



It was a great achievement to obtain a frame capable of resist- 

 ing the enormous strain of the strings, but this advance imperatively 

 led to innumerable variations being made in various details, for the 

 attainment of an equilibrium, without which the promised gain could 



