CRIMINALITY IN ANIMALS. 249 



and become the principles of his thoughts, his judgments, his deter- 

 minations, and his actions. They are the seeking for food, the taking 

 of precautions for his safety, and the gratification of his amorous de- 

 sires. Leroy also suggests that we may recognize in beasts natural 

 passions, and other passions which might be called factitious or reflex- 

 ive. Of the former class are the impulses of hunger, the ardent desires 

 of love, and maternal tenderness ; of the latter are the fear of want, 

 or avarice, and jealousy, which leads to vengeance. Other authors, 

 among them Gall and August Comte, have endeavored to frame a 

 classification of the cerebral faculties. Without discussing here these 

 different systems which have been proposed chiefly to fix the number 

 of man's elementary faculties, we believe that it will be convenient for 

 the exposition of our subject to recognize among animals such instincts 

 or elementary faculties as the nutritive, the genetic, the maternal, and 

 the destructive instincts ; and, as among those easier to "establish with 

 man than with animals, the instinct of vanity and the social instincts. 

 We shall study particularly the exaggerations of these instincts, which 

 are injurious to other animals of the same species, and which result in 

 such specific acts as are regarded as crimes or offenses in human so- 

 cieties. " The animal and man," says Gall, " are organized for anger, 

 hatred, sorrow, fear, and jealousy, because there are things and events 

 which, according to their nature, deserve to be detested or loved, de- 

 sired or feared." 



1. Acts of Offense committed by Animals under the Influ- 

 ence of the Nutritive Instinct. No distinctions are observed 

 with regard to sex. When hunger makes itself felt, all animals ex- 

 hibit, in different and varied degrees, according to their nature, the 

 spectacle of the "struggle for existence." The fact is so well known 

 that it does not require any great elaboration. The animals longest 

 and most completely domesticated continue at feeding-time to steal 

 food from each other, and to quarrel about it. The use of separate 

 mangers, racks, boxes, and stalls, is based upon the knowledge of this 

 fact. The object of the most important features of the interior ar- 

 rangements of stables is to prevent the stealing of food and the tram- 

 pling of the weaker by the stronger. It is well known that among the 

 species which we see daily are individuals manifesting clearly the dis- 

 position to theft. Some of them have an exaggerated nutritive in- 

 stinct, are avaricious, and lay up provisions. Leroy says that when 

 wolves have brought down a large animal, they eat a part of it and 

 carefully hide the rest ; but this precaution does not abate their pro- 

 pensity to hunt, and they have recourse to their cache only when the 

 chase has been unsuccessful. The same observation may be made 

 with reference to dogs, foxes, and other animals. 



M. Cornevin has remarked that, among species which live in com- 

 munity, not only is food stolen, but individuals which are on the point 

 of perishing are eaten. Wolves, in spite of the proverb, rats and mice, eat 



