DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHINESE 81 



been quite largely negative, for it takes men out of society. Abstract 

 and monotonous contemplation according to definite rules is typical of 

 its techniques. Such inwardness is fatal to the genuine autonomy of 

 higher morality. So far from leading men forward into higher cultural 

 life, it simply burdened them with further groups of customs. Owing 

 to the fact that discrimination has not set in, large numbers, if not all, 

 of the Chinese are at one and the same time Confucianists, Taoists and 

 Buddhists. 



In all this the ethical ideal which was emphasized by Confucius and 

 interpreted later by the philosopher Chu has had a profound influence on 

 the majority of the Chinese. It is succinctly expressed in the Great 

 Learning in the following words: 



The ancients who wished to promote virtuous conduct throughout the king- 

 dom, first ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their own states, 

 they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they 

 first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first 

 rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be 

 sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first 

 extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such investigation of knowledge lay 

 in the investigation of things.s 



This descending series should be approached from below, so that it 

 involves ascent rather than descent. Broad knowledge of self and others 

 is the foundation, and upon this are built in succession sincere thoughts, 

 rectified minds, practise of personal virtue, well regulated families, well 

 ordered states, and finally the promotion of practical virtue throughout 

 the kingdom. Such ideals challenge the admiration of all men and might 

 well stimulate autonomic conduct. Unfortunately, as we have indicated, 

 the whole series rested on a basis of convention, so that it was little more 

 than mere form. 



The situation is similar in the instance of the five social relation- 

 ships — of husband and wife, father and son, brothers, prince and 

 officer, and friends. They do not rest on a rational basis, but have be- 

 come incrusted with layer upon layer of custom. An illustration or two 

 will serve to elucidate this point. 



In case of severe illness of a parent, there has been a generally held 

 belief among the Chinese for thousands of years that a cure can not be 

 effected, unless a piece of the flesh of the son is cooked and then eaten 

 by the parent. Naturally cases of this sort are not everyday occur- 

 rences, but they have the sanction of custom and in extreme instances are 

 adopted. References to this have frequently appeared in Chinese papers. 

 Dr. Smith assures us that he has become " personally acquainted with a 

 young man who cut off a slice of his leg to cure his mother and who 

 exhibited the scar with the pardonable pride of an old soldier." 7 He also 



6 * ' The Great Learning, ' ' Introduction, p. 4. 



7 Arthur H. Smith, ' ' Chinese Characteristics, ' ' New York, 1894, p. 178. 



vol. lxxxvii. — 6. 



