158 TEE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY 



enough, such an outcome, happy as it might be, is made probable neither 

 by the study of history, psychology nor present political tendencies. To 

 the psychologist, indeed, it appears that the whole trend of social move- 

 ments is in a direction favorable to the perpetuation of war. 



One hundred years ago there were bright visions of universal peace. 

 War, it was believed, was an iniquitous invention of evil and mischievous 

 men, interfering with the peace and prosperity of the world. Free 

 trade between nations and free competition between men were to in- 

 augurate a reign of universal peace and prosperity. The function of 

 government was to be limited to a minimum. A sort of universal fra- 

 ternity, pan-humanism or internationalism was to take the place of 

 fratricidal strife. 



This dream has been poorly realized. Free competition has not 

 worked in practise, and the emphasis is being put more and more upon 

 the functions of the state. To be sure many would substitute " society " 

 for the state and, indeed, socialists and Utopianists still look forward to 

 a " new basis of civilization " in which a pleasure economy is to replace 

 the old pain economy, when surplus energy, equality of opportunity, in- 

 crease of food, short working hours, good sanitation, good housing, etc., 

 will release starving human faculties, resulting in human culture, moral- 

 ity, economic equilibrium and finally in a " denationalized fraternal hu- 

 manity." Thus with the disappearance of poverty the last obstacle will 

 be removed to upward human progress and universal peace. 



It is the purpose of this paper to point out some of the psychological 

 obstacles to the realization of this ideal. Meanwhile it is obvious that 

 the political obstacles are equally great. 



At the present time the trend of political events is precisely in the 

 opposite direction. With the unification of Italy in 1859, there awoke 

 the new spirit of nationalism and the revival of patriotism. In 1861, 

 the American Union, fired by the same spirit, resisted disunion. Then 

 followed the unification of Germany, the awakening of the Slavs, the 

 expansion of Great Britain. 



Instead of the anticipated free trade between nations, each country 

 by means of protective tariffs drew the mantle of self-sufficiency more 

 closely around itself. In place of the expected pan-humanism a new 

 patriotism has everywhere sprung up. Add to this another fact, per- 

 haps correlated with it, that in the last hundred years a new impulse of 

 cosmic energy, or something of the kind, seems to have flowed into the 

 motor nerves of human beings. There is tremendous activity in the 

 form of striving. The gospel of striving which dates from Lessing and 

 Fichte, and which found its poetic expression in Goethe, is the gospel 

 of modern life. It exhibits itself in intense desire for expansion, for 

 self-expression. It has produced stupendous results in scientific in- 

 vention, discovery, industrial and commercial expansion. Then fol- 



