ORIGINS OF SCIENCE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD 33 



theory of all matter as composed of atoms theories which 

 failed to establish themselves because they lacked observa- 

 tional and experimental support. But what a contrast to the 

 mental attitude of earlier peoples and to that of early Chris- 

 tendom is here presented! 



Speculations concerning the origin of life proceeded along 

 two lines the origin of the individual and the origin of the 

 race. These two problems, which have so concerned the 

 biologist of modern times, were not always clearly separated. 

 They have, of course, certain features in common. The 

 speculations of the earlier Greek philosophers cuhninated in 

 the doctrine of Aristotle that living things originated from 

 germs, composed of soft masses of matter, or, in the case 

 of higher forms, sprang directly from the earth. We find 

 here the beginnings of the controversy over spontaneous 

 generation, which was not settled until the third quarter of 

 the nineteenth century. The explanation of racial origins 

 what we now term evolution was developed among the 

 Greeks as an outgrowth of their observation that nature was 

 in a state of constant change. Seeing the apparent flux of 

 all material things, the Greek philosopher speculated, not 

 only upon the existence of a permanent element in nature, 

 but also upon the nature of the change that was forever in 

 progress. Thus arose the idea of living things as changing; 

 and, finally, the concept of a succession of animal types, and 

 of descent with modification, was vaguely expressed. Again, 

 the concept of a survival of the fittest was dimly recognized by 

 Empedocles; and Aristotle clearly stated the problem, if not 

 the solution, of the phenomenon of adaptation in organic 

 nature. As a result of these speculations, the Greeks, as one 

 writer expresses it, "left the later world face to face with the 

 problem of Causation in three forms: first, whether Intelli- 

 gent Design is constantly operating in Nature; second, 

 whether Nature is under the operation of natural causes 

 originally implanted by Intelligent Design; and third, 

 whether Nature is under the operation of natural causes due 



