THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND CONSCIOUSNESS. 71 



sensibility so well defined and persistent as to justify the fourfold 

 division above stated. 



We have now to inquire as to the testimony of pathology respect- 

 ing these motor areas in the brain. Charcot and Pitres, in "Revue 

 Mensuelle," November, 1878, and February, 1879, cite fifty-six cases 

 of brain-dieases bearing on this subject. Twenty-one of these cases 

 show lesions in the brain outside the motor zone, and unaccompanied by 

 motor trouble. Charcot's deductions from these cases are that " there 

 exist in the cortex of the cerebrum tracts which are independent of 

 voluntary motion, and when lesions occur in these tracts there are no 

 permanent affections of the motor functions." The remaining cases 

 cited by Charcot show lesions in the motor zone, and are accompanied 

 by varied degrees of paralysis in keeping with the situation and ex- 

 tent of the lesion. Dr. Bechstrew, in the "Medicinische Wochen- 

 schrift," St. Petersburg, details a number of cases which confirm the 

 recent views on the motor functions of the areas about the middle 

 convolutions. Other confirmatory cases have been cited by Burdon 

 and Maragliano, by Dr. Henry Obersteiner, and many more. It is 

 well known, however, that a number of opposing instances are on 

 record that is, of lesions in the so-called motor zone without paraly- 

 sis, and of paralysis unaccompanied by lesions in these portions of the 

 brain. There is a fundamental objection to this kind of evidence : it 

 is selected evidence, chosen to make for or against a theory. What 

 we really need is a collection of all cases of injuries to parts of the 

 hemispheres, and a full statement of consequences without regard to 

 the bearing of the example. 



This is the proper place to mention a brain disorder more or less 

 commonly known under the name of aphasia. Aphasia is a disturb- 

 ance of the power of speech. It appears in two distinct forms, viz., 

 amnesic and ataxic aphasia. The person suffering from amnesic apha- 

 sia forgets substantives and names, other parts of speech being prop- 

 erly used ; or he forgets a language which he once knew, or he misap- 

 plies terms, " using pamphlet for camphor, horse for man," etc. In 

 ataxic aphasia the power of articulation is completely lost. The per- 

 son understands fully the word to be used, and makes vigorous effort 

 to use it, but is unable to do so. Sometimes articulation is half de- 

 stroyed, so that the first part of the word can be spoken, but not the 

 other. Sometimes automatic phrases can be uttered, such as yes and 

 no, while it is perfectly clear that these exclamations do not satisfy 

 the person. Another form of this general trouble is agraphia, or the 

 inability to express ideas in writing ; this is frequently complete, and 

 all attempts at writing end in a scrawl. It is noticeable that aphasia 

 is sometimes, though seldom, unaccompanied by insanity. As early 

 as 1861 Broca, in Paris, expressed the opinion that aphasia was 

 connected with disease in the third frontal convolution. While a 

 large number of cases have been cited for and against this conclusion, 



