1899] EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE OF RIBBED TOADS 89 



The genus is called Ascaphus, meaning " spadeless," apparently because 

 the sternum appears as a narrow band of cartilage only, without 

 posteriorly diverging lateral styles as in other genera. But since the 

 sternum " had been considerably damaged by the collector cutting open 

 the abdomen to admit alcohol to the intestines," its shape is " a little 

 doubtful," and may possibly not justify the generic name. An un- 

 doubted criterion is afforded by the position of the vomerine teeth, 

 which are between the choanae, and not, as in other genera, behind 

 them. The species is called A. truei, because Dr. True is the author's 

 official chief. The sex of the unique specimen is not stated. 



Degrees of Protective Adaptation. 



An examination of the contents of the stomach has often proved of 

 value in biological research, though it may seem to some a dull way 

 of getting at the secrets of life. We have learned, for instance, not a 

 little in regard to the habits of fishes through the patient labours of 

 those who have analysed the contents of fishes' stomachs ; and a 

 recent research by Mr. Sylvester D. Judd (Amer. Naturalist, xxxiii. 

 1899, pp. 461-484), who has examined the stomachs of fifteen thousand 

 birds, is an important contribution towards solving one of the most 

 intricate problems of biology — the efficiency of protective adaptations. 



These protective adaptations in insects are, as every one knows, 

 extraordinarily diverse, but the most important are included under 

 the following heads : — resemblance to surroundings ; hairs ; stings or 

 poisonous bites ; ill-flavoured, ill-scented, or irritating properties ; warn- 

 ing coloration ; and protective mimicry. These are the headings used 

 by Mr. Judd in his paper, the broad result of which shows that the 

 supposed protections of insects are certainly not always baffling to 

 birds. He gives a long list of so-called protected forms, and of the 

 birds which nevertheless prey upon them. 



We agree entirely with the author when he says : " It seems to 

 me that there are different degrees of protective adaptations — that 

 some are much more effective than others. There is need of some 

 standard of the efficiency of protective adaptations, i.e. a measure of 

 their working forces. Some of the writers on the subject have led one 

 to suppose that a good many protective devices secure almost complete 

 immunity from the attacks of birds ; while other investigators have 

 been tempted, when they found in particular instances that facts, 

 apparently, did not coincide with current views, to abandon the theory 

 entirely." 



There is an anthropomorphism in biology which is hardly to be 

 got rid of. Because an insect is unpalatable to us we argue that it 

 must be distasteful to a bird ; but " it does not follow," Mr. Judd 



