3 o THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 



ference that from propitiatory presents, voluntary and exceptional to 

 begin with, but becoming as political power strengthens less voluntary 

 and more general, there eventually grow up universal and involuntary 

 contributions established tribute ; and that with the rise of a currency 

 this passes into taxation. How this transformation tends ever to take 

 place, and what are the motives which continually press it on, and 

 change extra voluntary gifts into extra involuntary ones, is well shown 

 by Malcolm's account of the usages in Persia. Speaking of the " irreg- 

 ular and oppressive taxes to which they [the Persians] are continually 

 exposed," he says: "The first of these extra taxes may be termed 

 usual and extraordinary presents. The usual presents to the king are 

 those made annually by all governors of provinces and districts, chiefs 

 of tribes, ministers, and all other officers in high charge, at the feast of 

 Nourouze, or vernal equinox. . . . The amount presented on this occa- 

 sion is generally regulated by usage ; to fall short is loss of office, and 

 to exceed is increase of favor." 



That under such kind of pressure regular tribute originated from 

 irregular presents, is in various cases implied both by the nature of 

 the things given and by the growing periodicity of the giving. Sup- 

 posing them to be acceptable, gifts will naturally be made from among 

 those things which people have that are at once the best and the most 

 abundant. Hence it will happen that when they become regular in an 

 extensive kingdom, they will represent the products of the respective 

 districts ; as in ancient Peru, where from one province the people sent 

 fragrant woods, from another cotton, from another emeralds and gold, 

 from another parrots, honej 7 , and wax ; or as in ancient Mexico, where 

 the towns paid " what the country afforded, as fish, flesh, corn, cotton, 

 gold, etc. ; for they had no money." In other cases where the arrange- 

 ments are less settled, the gifts from the same place are miscellaneous ; 

 as, for instance, those made by towns to early French kings " oxen, 

 sheep, wine, oats, game, wax-torches, confections, horses, arms, vessels 

 of gold and silver, etc." Clearly, if the making of presents passes into 

 tribute in kind, there will result these varieties of articles ; determined 

 sometimes by the character of the locality and sometimes by the abili- 

 ties of individuals. 



The passing of present-making into payment of tribute as it becomes 

 periodic, is well exemplified in some comparatively small societies where 

 governmental power is well established. In Tonga " the higher class 

 of chiefs generally make a present to the king, of hogs or yams, about 

 once a fortnight : these chiefs at the same time receive presents from 

 those below them, and these last from others, and so on, down to the 

 common people." Ancient Mexico, formed of provinces subjugated at 

 various times and dependent in various degrees, exhibited several stages 

 of the transition from presents to tribute. Speaking of the time of Mon- 

 tezuma I., Duran sa)-s : " The list of tributes included everything. . . . 

 The provinces . . . made these contributions . . . since they were con- 



