518 MOLLUSCA phylum vi 



small oblique prisms. The laminae of the middle layer are disposed at right 

 angles to those of the adjacent layers. 



Many Gastropods have a calcareous or horny plate, called the operculum, 

 attached to the posterior part of the foot, and serving to close the aperture 

 more or less completely Avhen the animal withdraws into its shell. Being 

 most commonly of corneous nature, it is seldom preserved fossil ; sometimes, 

 however, it is calcareous, and may attain considerable size and thickness. On 

 the outer surface it may be smooth, furrowed, granulated or covered with 

 excrescences. The nucleus or initial point of growth is sometimes central, or 

 may be eccentric or even marginal in position ; it may be surrounded by con- 

 centric markings, or form the origin of a spiral consisting of few (paucispiral) 

 or many (multispiral) whorls. Certain Solariidae have a conical operculum, 

 which is covered externally with numerous spiral lamellae. 



The embryonic stages of Gastropods are usually completed in the egg- 

 capsule. Early in its development the embryo forms a small shell, the proto- 

 concliy which consists sometimes of several whorls, and not infrequently differs 

 in form from the shell of the adult. The protoconch remains attached 

 to the apex for a time, in the form of a small glistening knob, or a short 

 smooth spire, which occasionally stands at an angle to the rest of the shell, or 

 is even twisted in a contrary direction (heterostrophic). Should the protoconch 

 become decollated, a small calcareous plate closes over the apex of the spire. 



All branchiate Gastropods are aqueous in habitat, but there are some 

 forms having a lung-cavity which live permanently in fresh water (Lymnaeidae), 

 and others which are exclusively marine (Siphonariidae). The greater number 

 of Gastropods, especially the large and solid forms, frequent the coast-line, 

 and inhabit comparatively shallow water. Some become attached to rocks 

 and plants, others burrow in sand or mud. A great reduction in the Gastropod 

 fauna is noticed at a depth of between 70 and 100 metres, but many genera 

 (Pleurotoma, Fusus, Natica, Odosfomia, Eulima, Scissurella, Turbo, Cylichna, 

 Tornatina, Actaeon, etc.) persist into the greatest depths yet explored. Most 

 marine Gastropods are killed by removal into fresh water ; a few genera, 

 however, are able to maintain their existence in brackish or in fresh water 

 (Cerithium, Littorina, Eissoa, Trochus, Purpura, etc.). On the other hand, many 

 fresh-water forms {Melania, Melanopsis, Neritina, Ampullaria, Lymnaea, Planorhis) 

 can survive in brackish or even strong salt water. There are also large 

 numbers of terrestrial Gastropods, especially in tropical regions. 



Most Gastropods are herbivorous, but a few subsist upon living or decom- 

 posed animal food. Many genera {Natica, Buccinum, Murex) perforate the 

 shells of other Mollusks with their radula, and extract the contents. 



Classification. — Ordinal divisions have been based since the time of Cuvier 

 and Milne Edwards upon the respiratory organs, and the structure of the foot 

 (whether adapted for swimming or crawling). The reproductive organs, and 

 the structure of the heart and nervous system, are also of prime importance. 

 For separating smaller groups, shell characters and the radula are largely 

 employed. Gastropods may be diA-ided into two subclasses : Streptoneura, 

 with the orders Ctenohranchiafa and Aspidohranchia ; and Euthyneura, with 

 the orders Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata. 



