Cbap. XXL] AND CONCLUDING REMARKS. 375 



lower animals. Owing to this condition of mind, man 

 cannot avoid looking backward and comparing the im- 

 pressions of past events and actions. He also continually 

 looks forward. Hence after some temporary desire or 

 passion has mastered his social instincts, he will reflect 

 and compare the now weakened impression of such past 

 impulses with the ever-present social instinct ; and he 

 will then feel that sense of dissatisfaction which all unsat- 

 isfied instincts leave behind them. Consequently he re- 

 solves to act differently for the future — and this is con- 

 science. Any instinct which is permanently stronger or 

 more enduring than another, gives rise to a feeling which 

 we express by saying that it ought to be obeyed. A 

 pointer dog, if able to reflect on his past conduct, would 

 say to himself, I ought (as indeed we say of him) to have 

 pointed at that hare, and not have yielded to the passing 

 temptation of hunting it. 



Social animals are partly impelled by a wish to aid the 

 members of the same community in a general manner, 

 but more commonly to perform certain definite actions. 

 Man is impelled by the same general wish to aid his 

 fellows, but has few or no special instincts. He differs 

 also from the lower animals in being able to express his 

 desires by words, which thus become the guide to the aid 

 required and bestowed. The motive to give aid is like- 

 wise somewhat modified in man : it no longer consists 

 solely of a blind instinctive impulse, but is largely influ- 

 enced by the praise or blame of his fellow-men. Both 

 the appreciation and the bestowal of praise and blame 

 rest on sympathy ; and this emotion, as we have seen, is 

 one of the most, important elements of. the social instincts. 

 Sympathy, though gained as an instinct, is also much 

 strengthened by exercise or habit. As all men desire 

 their own happiness, praise or blame is bestowed on 

 actions and motives, according as they lead to this end ; 



