9 DAKOTA GRAMMAR [Memoirs National 



a [VOL. XXIII, 



The distinction between neutral and active verbs is expressed by the pronoun. As in many 

 American languages the object of the transitive verb coincides with the subject of the neutral 

 verb. In Dakota this may perhaps be so understood that the state is expressed in reference to 

 the personal pronoun "being strong is in reference to me"; i. e., "I am strong." 



Reduplicated neutral verbs may be made active by retaining the accent on the first syllable, 

 while the neutral form throws it on the second syllable. 



The personal pronoun is poorly developed. There are only three distinct forms, "I, thou, 

 thou and I." There is no pronoun of the third person. The active subjects "I" and "thou" 

 differ from the objective forms. The dual "thou and I" is the same in both forms. Transitive 

 forms with pronominal subject and object combine the separate forms, most frequently in the 

 order object-subject, except the combination "I-thee" which cannot be derived from the simple 

 pronouns. 



The possessive pronoun is closely related to the neutral pronoun. Inseparable and separable 

 possession are strictly differentiated, but on the whole the possessive pronoun is avoided, posses- 

 sion by the subject being expressed by a verbal element. Instead of saying "my horse is sick," 

 the Dakota says "the horse is sick for me." 3 " 



Demonstratives express three positions: here, there, and there visible so that it can be pointed 

 at. They play an important role in the language because they perform syntactic functions. 

 The desire for exact localization which is characteristic of many American languages appears 

 also in all verbs of motion and their ever-recurring combinations with other verbs. The motions 

 hither and thither and the resulting arrival here and there ; returning hither and thither, and the 

 resulting arrival here and there after returning are strictly differentiated. 



Verbal stems are built up into more complex themes by means of two classes of prefixes, 

 locatives and instrumentals. The locatives are a- on, o-in, i- against. The instrumentals express 

 modes of action: yu- by pulling, i. e., movements towards the body; pa- by a steady push; 

 ka- by a sudden stroke; wo- by an impact from a distance; pu- by pressure; ya- by action with 

 the mouth; na- by action with the foot, also by inner force: 'a-pa'-Kpa on-by a steady push-lie; 

 i. e., to throw down on — is a typical example of such combinations. 



Nouns are conceived as classified according to form. This concept finds expression in accom- 

 panying verbs of position. Certain things he, others stand or sit. An earlier greater impor- 

 tance of this feature is suggested by the use of verbs expressing standing (in Teton), of sitting 

 (in Yankton), as continuative verbal forms. 



Distributive ideas are expressed by reduplication. In bisyllabic stem complexes the second 

 syllable is repeated. 



The more or less intimate relation between two concepts is expressed by phonetic devices. 

 Thus intimate, exclusive possession may be expressed by vocalic contraction of the prefixed 

 possessive element t'a with the initial vowel of the stem, in contradistinction to less intimate 

 possession in which no contraction occurs. My seat which it is my privilege to occupy, is con- 

 tracted. My seat on which I sit although others may use it as well, is not contracted. Another 

 device is used for expressing the more or less intimate relation between nouns, nouns and verbs, 

 adverbs and verbs. The parts of the complex may remain independent, each retaining its accent, 

 or they may be combined into one word with one common accent. For instance, nominal sub- 

 ject and neutral verb predicate are independent, noun and adjective have only one accent; in 

 combinations of verbs two actions occurring at the same time, as "he comes dancing" are felt 

 as separate units in which dancing is an adverb describing the act of coming ; while in successive 

 actions as "he comes to dance" the two verbs are united by a single accent. 



Although the general structure of the language is transparent, the semantic values of com- 

 pounds are often highly specialized and tend to be considered as new units which are further 

 elaborated by the usual processes. There is also a tendency, rather unusual in American lan- 

 guages, to obscure the original composition by processes of phonetic assimilation and metathesis. 



In contrast to the prefixes which refer to the content of the verb, enclitics without accent 



3 »See pp.86, 128, 132. 



