14 DAKOTA GRAMMAK [MEM ™?™m 



In Teton ce'ka to stagger and ci'k'a(la) small are two of the few stems that retain k after 

 e or i. 



In nouns also the ending ca and c*a are preceded by e or i, except in naca' chief of a war party, 

 f qc'q' body, while ka and k'a are preceded by a, q, o, u, u. 



cvc verbs beginning with a dental or alveolar consonant and ending in c reduplicate in 

 Dakota so that the reduplicated syllable ends in k; not in I as might be expected. 15 



se'ca to be dry (like wood, hay), reduplicated sekse'ca 

 si'ca to be bad, reduplicated siksi'ca 



perhaps an indication that c is derived from an older k. (See p. 36.) 



§ 15. INFLUENCE OF a CHANGED TO e UPON k SOUNDS 



In all those cases in which a terminal a changes to e (see p. 29), excepting instrumental nouns 

 (see p. 43), the following k\, Ar'if, k\hq, k'-yhq', (k'ehq' Yankton), k'es, k'e'yas, ka change then k to 

 the corresponding c. 



Nomina actoris are all relative clauses, and require after a verb changing a to e the change 

 of the k sound of the following particle. Instrumental and locative nouns (see pp. 43, 125) 

 change a of the verb to nominal e and do not affect the following k sound. 



'ica'ge ki the instrument (ka'ga to make), waka'ge c% he' the maker; — ivi'yut'e k\ the measure (iyu't'a to 

 test), ivi'yut'e c{ he' he who measures or tests; — wi'c'ap'e ki the fork (c'ap'a to stab) ; wac'a'p'e c\ he' 

 the stabber; — 'oyq'ke bed; — 'oioq'yake sight 



§ 16. k IN NEUTRAL AND ACTIVE VERBS 



The fundamental distinction between neutral and active verbs appears also in the treatment 

 of k. Riggs has already pointed out (p. 8, No. 7c) that neutral verbs never change initial k, k\ 

 k\ to c, c', c'. This does not even happen when neutral verbs are transitivised by instrumental 

 prefixes. 



k'a'la he is warm, nik'a'ta you are warm, nai'c'ik'ata he makes himself warm by walking (na- with the 



feet); — k\ za he squeaks, nik\za you squeak, nani'k\za he makes you squeak by kicking you; k'i'ta 



to be sciaped off, nani'k'ita he scrapes (mud) off you with the foot; — k'o confusion, ini'k'opi there is 

 confusion on thy account 



Active intransitive verbs do not change initial k, k\ k'. 



k(yq to fly; — ku' to come home; — k'i' to return there; — c'ap'e'-ku he comes home from stabbing 



In active transitive verbs the initial k, k l , k', changes to c, c', c' after all pronouns ending 

 in i, as ni thee, ic'i one's self, ki to, icH mutually, kici for him, c% I-thee. 



k'a' to mean, nic'a' he means thee; — k'u to give, nic'u he gives it to thee 16 ; — k'i' to carry on back, ni'c'% 

 he carries thee on his back"; — kilo'wq he sings to another one, nici'lowq he sings to thee 



Exceptions are: 



ku 1 to covet; waky.' I covet; niky,' he covets thee; and the dependent verbs k'o' to prophesy, t'eni'k'o he 

 prophesies your death; -kapi to be reluctant to, and kq'za to pretend. 18 They behave like all com- 

 binations of two verbs in which the subordinate verb expresses a purpose, and changes its a to e. 

 In this case the following k does not change; c'ap'e'k'iya he makes him stab it 



In reduplicated forms the second, reduplicated syllable retains the c form regardless of the 

 preceding sound. 



wic'a'kicalicah 'iye'ya quickly he made it for them (from ka'ga to make) ; — nape' ki'coscoza he waved 

 his hand to him (from ko za) 



Verbs with initial k, k*, k' except those with fixed initial ki change in their possessive forms, 

 but retain k, k\ k' in dative forms; kic*u'wa he pursues his own; kik'u'wa he pursues for him. 

 (See p. 87.) 



is The forms without terminal vowel change their cto I in Teton, to n in the eastern Dakota dialects, iilya' badly, Santee Sinya'; — iica' rich, 

 tilya' to cause to be rich, Santee iinya'. 



18 Second person direct object is expressed by wic'a'nic'u you are given away (lit. he gives thee to them; only in marriage). First person direct 

 object is formed in the same way. 



17 k'i he carries an inanimate object; fci'c'j he carries an animate being. 



' 8 But k%'za to decree, changes k to c. 



