and Classification of Birds. 319 



which is entirely shed previously to the first winter ; after 

 which the moult takes place in autumn only, any seasonal dif- 

 ference that may be exhibited being produced solely by the 

 wearing off of the edges of the feathers. But the first plu- 

 mage x>f the pipits is similar, except in texture, to that of the 

 adult; and the primaries are never shed before the second 

 autumn : moreover, the clothing feathers are renewed again 

 in spring, and regularly twice a year, even where, (as in the 

 tree pipit), the summer and winter garb are scarcely distin- 

 guishable. Now the A. Richardi, I am able to affirm with 

 confidence, accords in these particulars exactly with the o- 

 ther pipits, presenting no approach whatever to the larks : 

 and my observations lead me to conclude that the Alaudidce, 

 or larks, on the one hand, and the Motacillidce, or pipits and 

 wagtails, on the other, are insulated groups, every member of 

 which will be found to conform to the characters which I 

 have here indicated;* and that, consequently, there is no grad- 

 ing or transition into the finches, on the part of the one, nor 

 into the enicures, on that of the other. At the same time, 

 while considerable similarity in external aspect is thus no sure 

 intimation of affinity, the reverse does not of necessity imply 

 a wide removal ; for if we take up the thrush tribe, or some 

 others that might be cited, we find a special type most ex- 

 cessively modified, and radiating in various directions, till the 

 extremes at length become so very dissimilar, as to be recog- 

 nized with difficulty : and hence has arisen the very preva- 

 lent illusion, that there are no real divisions throughout or- 

 ganized nature. 



"L'echelle pretendue des etres," says Cuvier, "n'est qu'une 

 application eronnee a la totalite de la creation, de ces obser- 

 vations partielles qui n'ont de justesse qu'autant qu'on les re- 

 streint dans les limites ou elles ont ete faites, et cette appli- 

 cation, selon moi, a nui, a un degre que Ton aurait peine a 

 imaginer, aux progres de l'histoire naturelle dans ces derniers 

 temps." (Preface to the ' Regne Animal'). 



May 3rd, 1838. 



* It would be easy to point out further differences in their habits : for in- 

 stance, the larks dust themselves, but never wash ; the others wash fre- 

 quently, but never dust ; &c. 



