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between ancient and modern times generally, in the mode in 

 which state affairs were influenced by religious opinions, scru- 

 ples, and obligations. It is surprising to see how much the 

 free agency of states was shackled in antiquity by some reli- 

 gious prejudice or superstitious fear. The most pressing and 

 important undertakings were deferred if the consent of the 

 gods was not declared in the prescribed form. Generals 

 hesitated to give the order of attack, unless the sacrifices were 

 favourable, and popular assemblies were dismissed at the dis- 

 tant sound of thunder. The Roman Senate also was subject 

 to interruptions and exposed to impediments of a similar kind, 

 and had therefore less freedom of action than the British 

 Parliamant. 



Nor was the free action of the Senate confined only by reli- 

 gious observances. The forms which regulated its proceedings, 

 the " standing orders," if I may use that expression, were very 

 strict, and such as would not admit of anything like a free 

 discussion. Every senator, in the first place, had his own seat 

 assigned according to his rank, and never changed it. The 

 speeches were originally answers to a question, put by the 

 president, as to the matter in hand ; nor had any senator a 

 right to speak unless individually called upon by the presiding 

 magistrate to give his opinion. But the president himself was 

 not entirely free in selecting the speakers. He was obliged to 

 observe the same order always, which was mainly fixed by pre- 

 cedence of rank and seniority. The senators called upon to 

 speak either rose from their seats to give their opinions on the 

 subject in a regular speech, or without rising simply declared 

 their assent to an opinion previously expressed. It was in this 

 way that amendments were successively proposed, without, as 

 far as we can see, any fixed rules, such as those which regulate 

 every point of the minutest detail in the debates of the British 

 Legislature. A number of amendments being before the Senate 

 the presiding magistrate used his own discretion in fixing the 

 order in which they should be put to the vote, and seems even 



