History of Philosophy. 63 



The reforms undertaken and carried into effect by Socrates may 

 be classed under three heads : 



First. He sifted the errors which had crept into philosophy to 

 their very source, and not only laid bare the distortions which de- 

 formed her symmetry, but explained their causes. 



Second. He re-directed the human intelligence to the fountain 

 heads of truth, there to dip in her waters for the precious draughts of 

 knowledge. 



Third. He pointed out by what process that knowledge might be 

 best and most surely obtained. 



In considering the first of the three heads under which we have 

 classed his reforms, we must observe, that philosophers had hitherto 

 indulged in scientific speculations without any immediate or prospec- 

 tive object but the satisfaction of a curious and enquiring spirit. It 

 was enough for them to have erected a plausible scheme and con- 

 nected its different parts so artificially as to give it the semblance of 

 an harmonious system, without stopping to consider, if that system 

 rested on an unimpeachable chain of reasoning or would be the pa- 

 rent of any art of practical utility in advancing the interests of man- 

 kind in general. If they produced a fascinating speculation to .feed 

 the greedy imaginations of visionaries, their end was answered. 



It was, on the contrary, the distinguishing characteristic of the phi- 

 losophy of Socrates that practical utility was its immediate and indis- 

 pensable object. He would not allow the discussion, much less the 

 propagation, of a theory which did not propose to itself some mea- 

 sures in its application conducive to the welfare of the human race 



His predecessors in the philosophic schools had made knowledge 

 the instrument of their personal aggrandisement or enrichment ; but 

 he constantly promulgated in his doctrine, that it had but one legiti- 

 mate end the diffusion of knowledge ; for he urged that by making 

 men more enlightened you make them better; if you make them 

 better, you make them more happy. 



The passion for creating fresh systems had induced a neglect of the 

 proper limits of science, and urged many to soar, or endeavour to 

 soar, into regions utterly inaccessible to the limited scope of human 

 intelligence. Socrates, in allusion to this ridiculous grasping at sha- 

 dows untenable, drew distinctions between two kinds of ignorance : 

 the one, acknowledging its deficiencies, may be amended ; inasmuch 

 as that very consciousness of failing generates a desire of knowledge ; 

 the other, a presumptuous ignorance which deceives itself with the 

 idea that it knows that which it knows not, and being unaware of its 

 weak points, is not susceptible of improvement. 



It must not, however, be denied that Socrates, in his eagerness to 

 inculcate the superiority of practical utility over unfruitful theory, 

 carried his dislike of speculative philosophy to far too high a pitch, 

 inasmuch as he included in his sweeping condemnation the study of 

 pure mathematics and mathematics as applied to physics.* 



In its infancy, no science, no branch of knowledge can bear good 

 fruit. It is only when it has grown to maturity, or at least adoles- 



* See Memorabilia, lib. iv. chap. 7. 



