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ON THE DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF ANIMALS.* 



BY ARISTOTLE, THE STAGYRITE, FOUNDER OF THE PERIPATETIC 

 SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY. 



As to the parts of animals, some are kicomposite, namely, such as are 

 divided into similar parts, as flesh into flesh ; but others are composite, 

 being such as are divided into dissimilar parts ; as the hand is not 

 divided into hands, nor the face into faces. Some things, however, of 

 this kind, are not only called parts, but also members ; and these are 

 such parts, as being wholes, contain in themselves other peculiar 

 parts ; such as the head, leg and hand, the whole arm, and the chest, 

 {thorax). For these parts are themselves wholes, and there are also 

 other parts of them. But all dissimilar parts are composed from simi- 

 lar parts ; as, for instance, the hand from flesh, nerves, and bones. 



Some animals, however, have all the parts the same with, and some 

 have them different from, each other. But some of the parts are the 

 same in species ; as the nose and eyes of one man are specifically the 

 same with the nose and eyes of another man ; and flesh with flesh, and 

 bone with bone. This is also the case with the parts of horses, and 

 other animals, which we assert to be specifically the same. For as 

 one whole is to another, so is each of the parts to each. But some 

 animals have parts of the same genus, yet different according to ex- 

 cess and defect; I speak of those whose genus is the same as birds 

 and fishes; for each of .these has a difference according to genus, and 

 with reference to genus; and there are many species of fishes and birds. 



Nearly, all of the parts in them, however, differ in the contrarieties 

 of passive qualities, such as colour and figure ; because some of them 

 are more passive to these, but others less. Further still, they also 

 differ, considered as many and as few, as large and as small, and in short, 

 as to excess and defect. For some of them are crustaceous, and others 

 testaceous; some have a long beak, as cranes; and others a short 

 beak ; and some have many, and others a few, feathers. Neverthe- 

 less in these also, some of the parts are different from others ; for some 

 of them have spurs, and others not ; and some have, but others are 

 without a tuft of hair on the forehead. As I have said, however, most 

 parts, and from which the whole bulk is composed, are either the same 

 or differ in contrarieties, according to excess and defect. But some 

 animals neither have parts specifically the same, nor the same accord- 

 ing to excess and defect, but according to' analogy; just as bone is 



* Translated from the Greek work, riepi Zwwj/ l^opias, by T. Taylor, Esq., and cor- 

 rected and amended by the Editor, from Schneider's edition of the original. 



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