and Nations on the extent and situation of Forests. 25& 



and will for ever remain, barbarous and nomadic, because the 

 ground, being destitute of vegetable humus, presents to the 

 flocks, instead of nourishing and aromatic herbs, the withered 

 blades of unpalatable grass. 



The bad effects of scarcity of wood upon all the domestic, 

 public, and social concerns of the people, are visible in manjr. 

 woodless countries, several of which are so deficient in trees, 

 that the natives are obliged to eat their food half cooked, as 

 also to employ the excrements of cattle (and even they are 

 often hard to get) as a substitute for fuel. Thus the inhabi- 

 tants of the Hebrides are compelled to undertake long jour- 

 neys, in order to procure materials for the construction of 

 ploughing implements, thankful if, at home, they chance to 

 pick up what serves for the handle of a spade. Thus 

 Greenland was deserted by Danish colonies, because the sea 

 ceased to cast ashore the only timber to which they could 

 have access in such a cold country ; and in the western parts 

 of France, as also in England, the scarcity of wood imposes, 

 the sacrifice of many comforts. On the other hand, Sweden 

 has derived, for the last 1000 years, its principal revenue from, 

 the mere sale of timber ; whilst England is obliged to spend, 

 immense sums for the building and preservation of its fleets ; 

 and Spain, which, owing to its extent of sea-coast, and its 

 abundance of harbours, was formerly in the undisputed pos- 

 session of the main (a claim to which nature seems to have 

 entitled it), is now entirely blotted out from the list of naval; 

 powers. This, and a similar misfortune which presses equally 

 heavily upon Greece and Italy, justify the assertion, that 

 scarcity of wood is an evil, affecting every kind of national 

 transactions, and by no means easily overcome ; we are, 

 therefore, still of opinion, that forests have from the beginning 

 exerted, and will never, cease to exert, a powerful influence 

 upon the manners and customs of nations, as also upon their 

 mode of living, their commerce, industry, and domestic con- 

 cerns. Taking it, then, for granted, that the preceding dis- 

 cussions have demonstrated the intimate connection between 

 the great historical events of the human race and the exist- 

 ence of forests; that mountain forests are politico-econo- 

 mical elements worthy of particular attention and care ; and 



