bulkhead construction on a case-by-case 

 basis ignores a host of potential cumula- 

 tive physical, chemical, and biological 

 impacts (Fetterolf 1976). 



Structural and Nonstructural Alterna- 

 tives 



The design of bulkheads can be al- 

 tered, or they can be used in conjunc- 

 tion with other structures, to modify 

 their impact. Bulkheads can be stepped 

 back in a series of low vertical walls 

 which will provide some variation in 

 depths in front of the structure. When 

 enough steps are provided, the struc- 

 ture becomes a revetment. (There is 

 no exact definition which differentiates 

 a stepped bulkhead from a revetment.) 

 Another alternative is to use a bulkhead 

 landward of mean high water to protect 

 uplands from higher wave conditions 

 and use a sloping revetment or vegeta- 

 tion to protect the foreshore or inter- 

 tidal area. 



The alternatives must correspond 

 to the intended function of the struc- 

 ture. If the function of the bulkhead 

 is to protect the backshore land area 

 and prevent sliding, an alternative 

 structural solution is to build a revet- 

 ment. Offshore breakwaters can also 

 be used to reduce the wave attack on 

 the land. Buildinq up the beach (to 

 protect the uplands) by groins or beach 

 nourishment is also an alternative to 

 bulkheads. Another alternative is to 

 let the land erode and move or abandon 

 upland structures. (See also Revet- 

 ments. ) 



If the bulkheading is needed to 

 achieve a vertical interface between wa- 

 ter and land, then alternatives must re- 

 spond to the need for the vertical in- 

 terface. If the vertical face is for moor- 

 ing vessels, the same function can be 

 achieved by building a pier at right 

 angles to the shore or placing mooring 

 buoys offshore. If the vertical interface 

 is needed for recreational or aesthetic 

 purposes (to allow people to get close 

 to the water), a pier or structure pro- 

 jecting into the water presents a logical 

 alternative. 



The predominant criticism of bulk- 

 heads relates to their vertical design 



57 



and the consequent loss of variable 

 depths and intertidal zones which exist 

 on natural shorelines. The alternatives 

 which best protect these features are 

 either beach nourishment to maintain a 

 natural-like shoreline or revetments. A 

 revetment will provide protection to a 

 specific site and, if designed properly, 

 will allow variable depths and inter- 

 tidal zones to be retained. 



Regional Considerations 



Along the north Pacific coastline 

 (Coastal Region 1), bulkheading is most 

 frequently encountered in Puget Sound. 

 Bulkheads have been shown to alter sal- 

 mon fry behavior in Puget Sound, Wash- 

 ington, and in the Columbia River estu- 

 ary (Heiser and Finn 1970, Stockley 

 1974). Vertical bulkheads often elimi- 

 nate shallow water regions, and salmon 

 fry behavior in the vicinity of such 

 structures makes them extremely vulner- 

 able to predation. Stair-step design 

 bulkheads or riprap revetments on a 45 

 or less degree angle were found to pro- 

 vide protective habitat for the salmon 

 fry (Heiser and Finn 1970). Another con- 

 cern in Puget Sound and vicinity is the 

 destruction of surf smelt spawning hab- 

 itat by bulkheading spawning beaches. 

 State bulkhead criteria for surf smelt 

 spawning beaches were recently modified 

 to protect upper intertidal sand-fine 

 gravel beach habitat (Millikan et al. 

 1974). 



Bulkheads built at the bottom of 

 sea cliffs are one attempt to control 

 cliff erosion in southern California 

 (Coastal Region 2). They frequently are 

 found in conjunction with small boat 

 harbors in this region. Areas of the 

 Gulf of Mexico (Coastal Regions 3 and 4) 

 have been extensively bulkheaded. In 

 Mississippi, from Biloxi Bay westward, 

 including the eastern half of Hancock 

 County, the entire shoreline has been 

 altered by bulkheading and artificial 

 beach nourishment (Virginia Institute of 

 Marine Science 1976). Bulkheads are also 

 prevalent along the Atlantic coast 

 (Coastal Regions 6 and 7). They are 

 found almost continuously along northern 

 New Jersey shorelines (Yasso and Hartman 

 1975). 



A common practice in Galveston Bay, 

 Texas, and in southern Florida (Coastal 



