to achieve this goal than the industry itself. It has conscientiously sought 



to control and clean up spills and is spending millions of dollars each year 



on new technologies and training programs to improve tanker efficiency and 



to reduce the potential for accidents. 



The American Petroleum Institute (API), for example, has urged the U.S. 

 Coast Guard to take specific measures to identify and prevent substandard 

 tankers from operating in U.S. waters and has urged the adoption of inter- 

 national codes dealing with maritime pollution control and damage liability. 

 The Institute, furthermore, has stressed the need for uniform standards for 

 training and maintenance of navigational aids by all vessels. The broad 

 range of preventive measures voluntarily taken by U.S. oil companies encompass 

 personnel training, operational procedures, and utilization of advanced 

 technology. 



Most oil spi lls--large or small--are directly attributable to human 

 error. The most effective means of preventing spills, therefore, is to 

 employ skilled and attentive crews. To this end, oil companies have developed 

 innovative training programs, including the use of computerized simulators, 

 which use authentic mockups of a ship's bridge and visual devices to duplicate 

 a wide range of real-life situations. One tanker school uses scale-model 

 supertankers on a specially equipped lake to train captains in maneuvering 

 skills, including harbor approaches, moorings at offshore terminals, and 

 ship-to-ship berthing. Regular rotation for all officers reinforces rigorous 

 training regimes for their handling of progressively larger and more complex 

 ships under all sea conditions. 



Almost all tankers use the "load on top" procedure instead of discharging 

 oily ballast and tank washings into the sea. These mixtures are put into 

 a special holding tank, where the oil separates from the water. Eventually, 

 only clear sea water from the bottom of the tank is pumped overboard. The 

 new oil cargo is then loaded on top of the oily residues. Some operators 

 discharge their tank washings ashore in special reception facilities now 

 available at many refineries or drydocks. 



New waterless tank-washing techniques are now showing promising results. 

 These new methods involve spraying part of the crude oil cargo through high- 

 pressure nozzles to clean the tanks. The resulting solvent action is so 

 effective there is little residue and no oily ballast water to deal with. 

 Henceforth, all new ships over 70,000 deadweight tonnage will be constructed 

 with segregated ballast sections to comply with recent Coast Guard rulings. 



The petroleum industry has also made concerted efforts to reduce the 

 risk of accidental oil spills while transferring oil ashore. The industry 

 has compiled a comprehensive, detailed safety guide for all aspects of oil 

 handling at terminals, and all major U.S. oil companies now use this guide. 



The most advanced and sophisticated navigational systems are being used 

 on an increasing number of tankers. Long-range radio systems (LORAN) and 

 radar are now standard equipment. The industry has greatly improved accuracy 

 and reaction time by adding computerized collision avoidance systems. These 

 electronic aids are capable of pinpointing the position of a ship and calculating 



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