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organs and the wintr-pattern. and opens a wide field for theoretical researeli. 

 inviting at the same time to a comparison of the seasonal with the geographical 

 variation. 



In the introduction we have mentioned the degrees of geographical variation 

 observed in Papilios ; the lower degrees, called above localised aberration, concern 

 the colour, pattern, and shape of the wings, and cannot be expected to be noticeable 

 in the genital armature without long-continned research: we have therefore to do 

 only with the higher degrees of geographical variation of a species which is termed 

 subapecific variation. 



The valve, when of the usual more or less triangular outline, does not exhibit 

 obvious snbspecific variation ; while the variation according to locality is con- 

 spicuous, when the valve is divided into lobes, as is the case in F. srirpfdo)), 

 «?7s<<'Ms, and others. The variation is such that the specimens from a certain locality 

 are generally well distinguished from the specimens of a certain other locality; 

 but if we take individuals from all the \arious districts inhabited by the respec- 

 tive species, the lines of delimitation of the various forms become mostly obscure and 

 disappear. North Indian specimens of sarpedon and individuals from Sambawa are 

 at once distinguished by the form of the valval lobes, but examples from Lombok, 

 Java, and Sumatra overbridge the gap; Quecnslandian and Sikkim aristeus w& in the 

 dorsal lobe of the valve qnite dissimilar, bnt specimens from the interjacent countries 

 form-a continuous series of intergradations between those two extremes. The armature 

 of the valve varies in a similar way. We have cases in which the prehensile organ 

 of part of the individuals of the various localities has some peculiarity; thus in 

 Great Britain the prehensile portion of the harpe of a good many specimens of 

 P. machaon is long, while in many individuals from Syria the dentate portion is 

 very short ; the subspecific difference in the harpe of P. aegeus from New Guinea 

 and Australia is very slight and applies only to part of the specimens. In other 

 species the differences between the individuals from various districts become more 

 constant, so that with very few exceptions it is possible to tell from the examination 

 of the harpe from which place a respective specimen came. While in other cases 

 again, such as P. bath/cles, the iudividnals examined were constantly different in 

 the harpe according to locality. 



The localised peculiarity in the harjie is, therefore, found in many, or in 

 nearly all, or in all the individuals from the respective locality, and when the 

 distinguishing character applies to all the specimens, there occur intergradations 

 cither in other jjlaces (P. ariateus), or intergradations are unknown (P. bathychs). 



In i\m female sex the armature at the mouth of the vagina does not vary so 

 obviously according to locality as the harpe of the 7)uil(> does ; but when the 

 difference in the harpes of the subspecies is very consj)icuous, as in P. nlrinom 

 alcinous and P. alcinous confusus, the difference in the corresponding j)art of the 

 vaginal bulb is also prominent. 



If we keep in mind that the variation of the copulatory organs is independent 

 of the variation of the wing-characters, it is to be expected that a division of a 

 species into sn1)species will result in a different number of subspecies according 

 as we take for the basis of division solely the wiug-cliaracters, or the genital 

 armature, or both united; and it would likewise not be surprising if in a certain 

 case the number of subspecies inhabiting a certain region would by both divisions be 

 the same, bnt the lines of division be different. Among the species we have 

 examined the latter phonomenon did not occur ; when the numbers of the subspecies 



