resources, culture, and climate, there are universal 

 elements in urban problems: 



-- A wide range of aggregated human settlements is 

 necessary to support both urban and rural 

 development: (1) villages and market towns to 

 serve rural populations, to strengthen marketing 

 channels, and to introduce agribusiness and nonfarm 

 employment opportunities in the rural sector; (2) 

 secondary cities to achieve regional balance and 

 population distribution; and (3) major cities, 

 including national capitals, to provide positive 

 and unique contributions to national development, 

 and to absorb marginal labor, reduce development 

 risks, achieve economies of scale, and express 

 national aspirations. 



— Most large urban centers have a dual nature. They 

 contain: (1) a core of high-standard buildings 

 served by relatively adequate levels of public 

 services; and (2) a large surrounding area of 

 unplanned, unserviced marginal settlements 

 consisting of low-quality or makeshift housing. 

 Each requires different planning and action to 

 respond to its needs and opportunities. 

 The ultimate success of any national urban policy 

 will be largely determined by the availability of 

 an adequate supply of urban land at prices people 

 can afford. Decision makers need to learn more 

 about the variety of instruments available to 

 control land speculation through various forms of 

 land taxation, land redistribution mechanisms, land 

 banks, and land development agencies. 

 The per capita costs of urbanization need to be 

 lowered by adopting appropriate standards and 

 technologies. The objective of the urbanization 

 process should be to meet the basic needs of people 

 for jobs, shelter, land, water, sanitation, and 

 health and education services in urban centers, 

 located and designed to achieve satisfactory 

 communities and to promote development. Since 

 capital resources will remain scarce in many 

 countries, basic needs will have to be met through 

 the innovative application of resource-conserving 

 technologies. Simple technological innovations 

 that provide more urban-type amenities in the rural 

 sector will also be required to make rural life 

 more attractive. 



Ongoing Work and Future Needs 



Discrete elements of the urban problem are included 

 in development plans — water, sanitation, 



185 



